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R. ISHIDA
disease and sometimes death (Selye, 1936, 1973).
Mechanism of Purpose in Life (PIL) and Ikigai
PIL is drawn from existentialism that was developed in
Europe (Ishida, 2011). Ikigai is a Japanese concept that dates
back to the 14th century (Ishida, 2011). Both terms commonly
propose the following: “Everything changes. Life is a onetime
only event. Thus, every person has a natural and intrinsic need
to achieve a meaningful life” (Ishida, 2011). Some psycho-
logical instruments for the measurement of PIL and ikigai have
been developed (e.g., Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1964; Sato &
Tanaka, 1974). Our studies show that PIL/ikigai negatively
correlates with anxiety, psychiatric and somatic symptoms, and
the need for approval from others (Ishida, 2011; Ishida, 2012).
PIL/ikigai form a mechanism for the integration of psycholo-
gically stressful events in the past, present and future with less
anxiety and less conflicts even during stressful situations
(Ishida, 2011; Ishida, 2012). Additionally, PIL/ikigai provides a
person with the ability to delay gratification, appreciate
another’s point of view, trust in a higher power, accept personal
limitations, or count personal blessings (Ishida, 2011; Ishida,
2012). PIL/ikigai develops through positive experiences that
occur from infancy to adolescence, such as spending time in
beautiful natural surroundings, empathetic acceptance from
others, and affection from others (Ishida, 2011; Ishida, 2012).
On the other hand, excessive need for approval from others
causes anxiety and conflict during stressful situations (Ishida,
2011; Ishida, 2012). Excessive need for approval from others
develops when children are subject to excessive expectations
from parents and teachers (Ishida, 2011; Ishida, 2012). There is
strong evidence that PIL/ikigai can induce a physiological
secretion of serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, and β-endor-
phin. Persons with PIL/ikigai are likely to demonstrate more
independent spirit compared to those with excessive need for
approval from others.
Mechanism of Alcohol Dependence
Recent studies show that the β-endorphin system controls
alcohol consumption (Dalayeun, Norès, & Bergal, 1993; Gia-
noulakis, Krishnan, & Thavundayil, 1996; Morales-Mulia, de
Cortari, Amaya, & Méndez, 2012). Additionally, variation of
β-endorphin secretion depends on drinking habits (Gianoulakis,
Krishnan, & Thavundayil, 1996; Morales-Mulia, de Cortari,
Amaya, & Méndez, 2012). Persons with PIL/ikigai show less
anxiety, while those without PIL/ikigai demonstrate more anxi-
ety (Ishida, 2011; Ishida, 2012). PIL/ikigai causes secretion of
serotonin, dopamine, and β-endorphin (Ishida, 2012). Persons
who have an internal sense of satisfaction are more likely to
experience spontaneous feelings of pleasure and therefore they
do not wish to drink alcohol or take morphine to alleviate pain
(Nakata, 2006). Persons with anxiety attempt to induce pleasure
by drinking alcohol (Dalayeun, Norès, & Bergal, 1993). PIL/
ikigai triggers secretion of neurotransmitters such serotonin,
dopamine, and β-endorphin. Likewise, the brain reacts to alco-
hol with a similar neurotransmitter response. The primary struc-
ture of morphine and β-endorphin are comparable (Dragon,
Seidah, Lis, Routhier, & Chrétien, 1977). By natural or chemi-
cally induced means, there is evidence that indicates that every
person naturally seeks comfort, pleasure, and decreased anxiety.
Successful treatment for addiction of drugs or alcohol (or other
types of addiction) results in the addicted individual’s ability to
experience an internal sense of pleasure, self-belief and self-
efficacy (Levinthal, 1988; Peele, 1990-1991). This evidence
suggests that establishing PIL/ikigai by positive experiences
could prevent alcohol dependence. Additionally positive ex-
periences, such as spending time in beautiful natural surround-
ings and acceptance of warm empathetic attitudes from others
helps persons to establish PIL/ikigai.
Future Study
Regardless of the importance of the alcohol dependence issue,
the previous studies described above were studies about in-
dividuals. Other possible factors that influence alcohol de-
pendence must also be considered. Therefore, totally integrated
studies using experimental and epidemiological methods should
be performed in the future; these studies include the chemical
traits of neurotransmitters, development of PIL/ikigai and
anxiety, alcohol dependence, effects of counseling for persons
with alcohol dependence, and other possible factors influencing
alcohol dependence. Additionally, other issues such as drug
dependence, gambling problems, and the excessive need for
approval from others which causes greater anxiety should be
clarified.
Conclusion
Every person has a natural need to have pleasure and com-
fort and to avoid anxiety. PIL/ikigai relates to the inner aspects
of the brain, while drinking alcohol is an external and artificial
mechanism. Both PIL/ikigai and drinking alcohol result in
pleasure and comfort and secretion of β-endorphin. Therefore,
we suggest that helping individuals to achieve PIL/ikigai may
be one method of deterring alcohol dependence.
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