[en] Two relevant topics within the field of organic electronics have been studied with photoelectron spectroscopy. The organic material used is the successful polymer blend PEDOT-PSS. The first issue relates to the conductivity of organic materials. A known procedure (specific solvent-mixture) for improving the conductivity of PEDOT-PSS has been studied. The mechanisms behind the enhanced conductivity were shown to be due to higher PEDOT content at the surface. The other issue has to do with metal contacting of organic materials. Aluminum/PEDOT-PSS interfaces were studied. The formation of interfacial species was deduced with the aid of model molecules. We can conclude that it is mainly the PSS part that reacts with aluminum. Due to different surfaces in standard PEDOT-PSS and solvent-treated PEDOT-PSS, different interfaces are formed in the two cases

[en] A system of roentgen stereophotogrammetric analysis (RSA) has been developed and its value in studies of cranial growth in both man and the experimental animal (rabbit) has been delineated. This method is based on measurements from metal bone marker images on roentgenograms. Two roentgen tubes simultaneously expose the object, which is placed in one of two types of calibration cages. The object position does not need to be identical from one examination to the next. The cage, holding indicators of predetermined internal positions (in two or four planes), defines a laboratory coordinate system. Two-dimensional image coordinates are obtained by means of a highly accurate cartographic instrument. By computer reconstruction of the x-ray beams through the markers, 3-D object coordinates are calculated. For subsequent analysis of growth processes, extensive software is necessary. To control intrasegmental stability (routinely performed at each examination), a minimum of two markers is required, whereas three markers are needed in each skeletal segment for kinematic analysis using the rigid-body concept. Careful planning of marker placement before implantation minimizes implant loss and instability that otherwise might be a problem. Complications other than bone marker loosening have been nonexistent. The technical accuracy is high. Consequently, roentgen stereophotogrammetry, with the aid of metallic implants, is a superior means to obtain biometric information on cranial growth with relative ease

[en] Photoemission studies of thin films of Alq₃ and C₆₀ deposited on Al and LiF/Al substrates have been performed in order to deduce the interactions of the organic films with the substrates. For all cases there is evidence of strong interaction resulting in the formation of interfacial dipoles. Attempts to explain the origin of these interfacial dipoles and the type of interface formed in each case have been done through analysis of the valence electronic structure and core levels of the materials. The origin of the interfacial dipoles is mainly covalent interaction when the organic films are deposited on Al substrates, and charge transfer between the organic molecules and the metal through the LiF sandwich layer when the organic films are deposited on LiF/Al substrates. For thick-enough LiF films, however, there is no interaction between the organic films and the substrates. In no case does the LiF dissociate, unlike what is found for the reverse order of deposition. Two charge-transfer-induced gap states are found for (sub)monolayer films of Alq₃ deposited on LiF/Al. We propose that the formation of two gap states corresponds to negatively charged fac-Alq₃

[en] Annealing induced SSR (solid state reaction) leading to amorphization and magnetic properties as a function of Ti layer thickness has been investigated using XRD (x-ray diffraction), GIXRR (grazing incidence x-ray reflectivity) and MOKE (magneto-optical Kerr effect) measurements. [Ti(t A)/Ni(50 A)] x 10 ML samples where t = 30, 50 and 70 A have been prepared by using electron beam evaporation technique under ultra-high vacuum conditions at room temperature. The amorphization process was carefully studied using XRD and GIXRR techniques showing that the SSA (solid state amorphization) temperature gradually decreases with increasing Ti layer thickness. Corresponding MOKE measurements show a magnetic to non-magnetic transition near the amorphization temperature (T_A) with annealing, for each of the Ti layer thicknesses, due to crystalline Ti-Ni alloy phase formation at interfaces. The saturation magnetization and coercivity were also modified with Ti layer thickness variation. In addition to this, anisotropy developed with Ti layer thickness and diminished with increasing annealing temperatures. All these magnetic changes due to Ti layer thickness variations are interpreted in terms of amorphization and micro-structural changes near the SSA temperature

[en] The surface composition of as-grown and annealed ZnO nanorods arrays (ZNAs) grown by a two-step chemical bath deposition method has been investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). XPS confirms the presence of OH bonds and specific chemisorbed oxygen on the surface of ZNAs, as well as H bonds on (101-bar 0) surfaces which has been first time observed in the XPS spectra. The experimental results indicated that the OH and H bonds play the dominant role in facilitating surface recombination but specific chemisorbed oxygen also likely affect the surface recombination. Annealing can largely remove the OH and H bonds and transform the composition of the other chemisorbed oxygen at the surface to more closely resemble that of high temperature grown ZNAs, all of which suppresses surface recombination according to time-resolved photoluminescence measurements.

[en] Research highlights: → The use of resonant photoemission in its 'core-hole clock' expression for the study of the dynamical charge transfer across hybrid organic-inorganic interfaces and for the intermolecular charge transfer in the bulk of organic thin films is reviewed. → The electronic coupling to the substrate and the efficiency of charge transport across hybrid interfaces is different for individual electronic subsystems of the molecular adsorbate. → The intermolecular charge transfer in the bulk of discotic liquid crystals occurs on the order of a few femtoseconds and is faster than expected from the macroscopic charge transport characteristics of the material. -- Abstract: The focus of this brief review is the use of resonant photoemission in its 'core-hole clock' expression for the study of two important problems relevant for the field of organic electronics: the dynamical charge transfer across hybrid organic-inorganic interfaces, and the intermolecular charge transfer in the bulk of organic thin films. Following an outline of the technique, a discussion of its applicability and a short overview of experimental results obtained thus far, two examples are used to illustrate particular results relevant for the understanding of the charge transport in organic electronic devices. First, for Fe(II)-tetraphenylporphyrin molecules on semi-metallic molybdenum disulfide substrates, the electronic coupling to the substrate and the efficiency of charge transport across the interface different for the individual molecular electronic subsystems is discussed. And second, a discotic liquid crystalline material forming columnar assemblies is used to illustrate ultra-fast intermolecular charge transfer on the order of a few femtoseconds indicating an electronic coupling between the phthalocyanine units stronger than expected from the macroscopic charge transport characteristics of the material.

[en] The fundamentals of the energy level alignment at anode and cathode electrodes in organic electronics are described. We focus on two different models that treat weakly interacting organic/metal (and organic/organic) interfaces: the induced density of interfacial states model and the so-called integer charge transfer model. The two models are compared and evaluated, mainly using photoelectron spectroscopy data of the energy level alignment of conjugated polymers and molecules at various organic/metal and organic/organic interfaces. We show that two different alignment regimes are generally observed: (i) vacuum level alignment, which corresponds to the lack of vacuum level offsets (Schottky-Mott limit) and hence the lack of charge transfer across the interface, and (ii) Fermi level pinning where the resulting work function of an organic/metal and organic/organic bilayer is independent of the substrate work function and an interface dipole is formed due to charge transfer across the interface. We argue that the experimental results are best described by the integer charge transfer model which predicts the vacuum level alignment when the substrate work function is above the positive charge transfer level and below the negative charge transfer level of the conjugated material. The model further predicts Fermi level pinning to the positive (negative) charge transfer level when the substrate work function is below (above) the positive (negative) charge transfer level. The nature of the integer charge transfer levels depend on the materials system: for conjugated large molecules and polymers, the integer charge transfer states are polarons or bipolarons; for small molecules' highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals and for crystalline systems, the relevant levels are the valence and conduction band edges. Finally, limits and further improvements to the integer charge transfer model are discussed as well as the impact on device design. (topical review)