[en] Nuclear power is advantageous for a small country such as Finland which does not possess indigenous fossil fuel. For instance, the cost of imports required by nuclear fuel is essentially smaller than the cost of production of electric energy based on coal or fuel oil. In Finland the advantageousness of nuclear power was already proved in the 1950s but before starting the first power plant project it took 15 years to develop step by step the required infrastructure: building the research institutes and training their staff, creating connections to the international organizations and elsewhere abroad, training Finnish design staff, developing the domestic industry to the high quality required by nuclear power, and establishing the necessary authorities and public administration. Thanks to thorough preparation the implementation of the plant projects progressed at a good pace in the 1970s. The lesson learned from operation of the plants is that in a small country - located far from its main supplier - the staff at the plant and the supporting staff in the power company have to be able to analyse the problems occurring, usually in the conventional equipment, and carry out quick repairs without aid from the main supplier. This requires a high level of educational attainment from the staff and the best way to achieve this is for the staff to participate in the design and construction as much as possible already in the implementation phase. In order to maintain high availability, the capability of the domestic industry must also be good - especially in the fields of mechanical industry and electronics. In Finland over 30% of electric energy was produced in 1981 by four nuclear units. Two of these were built as manifold east-west adjustment work with the Soviet supplier and the other two are of Swedish origin

[en] Nuclear power generation in India commenced in 1969 with the operation of Tarapur Atomic Power Station, which consists of two boiling-water reactor units of 210 MW(e) each. However, an early decision was made in favour of the pressurized-heavy-water reactor as the principal type of power reactor to be set up in the country and the first pressurized-heavy-water reactor unit commenced commercial operation in 1973. The second unit at this station was synchronized to the grid for the first time on 1st November 1980 and began commercial operation in April 1981. The paper describes the operational experience gained from thirteen years of operation of the BWR units at Tarapur and eight years of operation of the PHWR units at Rajasthan. Certain aspects of nuclear power generation are highlighted which are peculiar to a developing country, such as problems faced in operating relatively big nuclear units in medium and small grids, long lead times required for recruitment and training of personnel for manning the stations and spares management, especially in an environment of insufficient industrial infrastructure. The need for operation and maintenance staff to be self-sufficient in the absence of adequate external support is emphasized. A large number of design modifications are described that were carried out to improve the performance of the station and the safety of the plant, and to safeguard the environment and the health of the personnel. (author)

[en] A study-week, promoted by the Pontifical Academy of Sciences (PAS) and held in the Vatican City on 10-15 November 1980, examined thoroughly the theme: ''Mankind and Energy: Needs - Resources - Hopes''. The study-week was sponsored by the PAS, organized by the French physicist Prof. Andre Blanc-Lapierre, and was presided over by the well-known biophysicist Prof. Carlos Chagas, who is also President of the same Pontifical Academy of Sciences. The volume ''Humanite et Energie: Besoins - Ressources - Espoirs'', with all the proceedings of the study-week, may be obtained on request from the Cancelleria della Pontificia Accademia delle Scienze, Casina Pio IV, Citta del Vaticano. (author)

[en] At the very beginning of nuclear activities in Argentina the National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA) formed a general metallurgy technical group for the purpose of carrying out research and development tasks over a wide range of systems and materials. In this connection plans were made for the establishment of a highly skilled team for work on non-destructive testing (NDT) which was to devote itself to inspection problems in connection with research reactors, nuclear power reactors and associated nuclear facilities. The paper describes the development of this NDT group, including its organization, the technical assistance it has received, the work it has done and the responsibility it has assumed in the nuclear field and also its impact on the development of the country's capacity in NDT technology. In addition, it deals with the multiplier effect achieved as a result of these activities and the formalization of some of these results in conjunction with other national institutions. All this has made it possible to extend the national use of non-destructive testing on a national scale, with control and supervision of the whole range of associated activities. (author)

[en] Since France has been compelled to free itself from the domination of oil, it has undertaken a nuclear programme capable of providing for nearly one third of its energy needs by 1990. Some years after the first oil crisis, a good part of the battle has already been won: 22 reactor units of 900 MW each have been connected to the grid and account for 40% of the electricity produced in France, while 12 other 900 MW units, together with the first 1300 MW units, are under construction. Nuclear power has thus become an industrial reality possessed of the tools appropriate for the whole fuel cycle, which has managed to cope with costs and meet deadlines, and has developed a safe and reliable product. With these positive results despite inevitable incidents the French nuclear industry has come of age. There are, however, handicaps which remain to be overcome: high investment costs, operating constraints and continuing doubt on the part of the public. The efforts deployed in these three spheres are beginning to bear fruit. As a result, implementation of the French nuclear programme is being continued, albeit at a slower rate, for the aim is no longer to replace oil by nuclear power as soon as possible, but rather to keep up with the rise in consumption. In pursuing its nuclear efforts, France will henceforth be stressing progress in terms of quality, which can still be achieved in terms of increased reliability (incorporation of feedback), better economic return (initiation of a new series known as ''N4''), easier operation (improvement of the man-machine interface) and also more independence. The ''frenchification'' of the light-water reactor has from the beginning been seen as one of the means of achieving this independence. This also applies to mastery of the whole fuel cycle. And finally, fast breeders represent the next stage

[en] India had an early start in the field of nuclear energy with the establishment of an Atomic Energy Commission in 1948. Development of indigenous know-how and technical manpower capabilities for tackling the tasks ahead had been the primary objectives. All aspects of the fuel cycle, including uranium exploration, production, fabrication of fuel assemblies for research and power reactors, reprocessing of spent fuel, radioactive waste management, etc., received early attention. Although there have been slippages in attaining targets with respect to installed nuclear power capacity, valuable experience has been gained in the operation of Tarapur and Rajasthan atomic power stations. Most of the major components required for nuclear power stations, such as calandria, end shields, steam generators, pumps, etc., have been successfully manufactured within the country, thus upgrading the industrial infrastructure. The country is at present in a position to embark on an expansion of nuclear power generation and the current target is to achieve an installed capacity of about 10,000 MW(e) by the year 2000. The expansion of uranium exploration and fuel mining activity, fabrication facilities, fuel reprocessing facilities and heavy-water production facilities are also planned. This paper reviews critically Indian experience in the planning and development of a nuclear power programme, and highlights the strengths and weaknesses. Operational experience with nuclear power stations and a fuel fabrication plant, waste management facility and spent fuel reprocessing facility, is also reviewed and the lessons learnt are highlighted. The need for perspective planning in view of the long gestation periods associated with nuclear projects is emphasized. The initiatives that Governmental institutions have to take to spearhead such a programme in a developing country are also highlighted. (author)

[en] In the first part of the paper, the authors recall Belgian conditions, initially as regards primary energy (high degree of energy consumption and high degree of dependence on other countries), and then as regards electricity (divided up according to energy sources and types of producer). In the second part, the method used in Belgium for planning electrical power production is explained. Particular emphasis is placed on both the economic and technical assumptions made (trends in fuel costs, method of calculating investment costs, etc.). The development required, for the period 1982-92, of the means of production is stated in the light of the assumptions made. Fuel cycle planning (front and back ends) is also described with a review of the principal stages, namely supply of natural uranium, enrichment, reprocessing, treatment of irradiated fuel, and geological storage of wastes. The third and last part of the paper looks back at events in the implementation of the Belgian nuclear programme in chronological order. The beginnings of nuclear development in Belgium are recalled, as is the decision to construct the first three units (Doel 1, Doel 2 and Tihange 1), which were completed and put into service in 1975. The programme now under way is also briefly described, together with the characteristics of Belgian power stations, especially those concerned with safety. In conclusion, the paper outlines the main advantages of the nuclear option for a country as vulnerable where energy is concerned, as Belgium. (author)

[en] World reserves of coal, uranium, thorium and thermonuclear fuel (deuterium and lithium) are sufficient to provide mankind with energy for many centuries. The rate of increase in demand is unlikely to be a limiting factor, and it would seem that any ''limits to growth'' will be dictated by other, in particular ecological, factors. In the last two decades, world power production has developed a structure in which a predominant place is occupied by oil and gas; this will have to change as a result of the marked depletion of oil resources and the enhanced role played in the fuel balance by power from coal and nuclear fission, on which, it would seem, the long-term growth of world energy production will be based. The contribution of nuclear fission power towards meeting world energy needs will depend on a number of factors, the most important of which from a long-term point of view is the time and rate of introduction of advanced nuclear power systems and fuel cycles with high nuclear fuel surpluses (breeding ratios). The results of almost 30 years of development of nuclear power with thermal-neutron reactors may serve as a basis for the analysis, evaluation and forecasting of the development of advanced systems. (author)

[en] The paper analyses the prospective energy demand and supply situation in Pakistan and shows that a strong rationale exists for Pakistan to meet a large fraction of its future electricity generation requirements through nuclear power. It is shown that even under conditions of modest economic growth and with maximum exploitation of available hydro and other resources the country would still need to provide about 10,000 MW of nuclear generating capacity over the next two decades in order to meet its power needs. The economic comparison between nuclear and coal/oil-fired units shows a decided advantage in favour of nuclear, which has led the government to decide on the construction of a second nuclear plant at Chashma for completion in 1989. The paper also describes the efforts being made in Pakistan to develop facilities related to nuclear power technology, and to produce adequately trained manpower, required to plan, design, build and operate the future nuclear power plants and other related installations in the country. (author)

[en] The development of the peaceful utilization of nuclear science and technology in the Federal Republic of Germany started in 1955. It concentrated on the development of nuclear energy with its important potential for energy supply, in order to cover the growing energy demand of the recovering economy, and on the application of nuclear radiation and radioactive isotopes in various areas of science and technology such as biology, medicine, chemistry, physics, materials research and development. From the beginning, the nuclear energy programme was a joint undertaking of government, industry and science. To achieve the necessary impetus and to supplement the activities of industry and universities, several nuclear research centres, in particular at Juelich and Karlsruhe, were founded. This comprehensive approach was the basis for the following rapid development of nuclear technology, as well as for its competitive structure and its safety record. With regard to nuclear energy utilization for electricity generation, heat supply, and ship propulsion a broad range of reactor concepts such as light- and heavy-water reactors, high-temperature reactors, and fast-breeder reactors was examined. Today, nuclear energy meets about 17% of the country's electricity demand. Fifteen nuclear power plants with a capacity of about 10,000 MW(e) are in operation; 11 plants with a total capacity of about 12,000 MW(e) are under construction, and the construction of another 10 plants is definitely planned. Activities in uranium enrichment, fuel element fabrication, and reprocessing have reached the industrial stage. The paper indicates possible future trends of the nuclear programme. The successful development of a national nuclear energy programme goes in parallel with broad international co-operation. Therefore the efforts to re-establish a stable system for co-operation in nuclear commerce and technology, based on international safeguards, should be strengthened