[en] The international community is faced with a big test of determining the marginal requirements of environmental impact aimed at preventing the climate change potentially endangering the survival of the civilisation as we know it. This phrase actually reflects the course of developments to be expected if we do not change our attitude towards the protection of the environment. This is a huge challenge for the energy sector and technological development: how to meet the growing needs for energy and, at the same time, significantly diminish the ecological burden. In the past 2 years the EU has put forward very ambitious plans. The question is are the designed mechanisms sufficient to facilitate the implementation of these plans and if the awareness of all actors participating in the process is high enough to enable this implementation.This Forum wants to open the decision about the future of the future in energy development in Europe, Region and Croatia. It is important that we all become aware that the changes in the energy sector will be dramatic if the obligations to reduce greenhouse gases emissions, mostly CO₂, are accepted in order to start working in that direction as soon as today

[en] Europe is in a very difficult situation regarding the future of energy supply because it is highly dependent on import of oil and natural gas. In addition, because of environmental pollution, global climate changes, ?nite World reserves of fossil fuels and geo-political implications of distribution of those reserves, such an energy system is not sustainable. The need for inevitable changes in energy supply is becoming more and more obvious. This includes not only a change of the energy sources, but also in energy carriers and technologies for their conversion into useful forms of energy, as well as a change in the ways energy is used today. Based on present knowledge, the only energy sources that satisfy the sustainability requirements are the renewable energy sources - direct solar insolation and its consequences (wind, hydro, biomass). As the renewable energy sources cannot be utilized directly in most of applications there is a need for such energy carriers which can be produced from renewable energy sources and which can satisfy all the energy needs at the end use, again satisfying the sustainability requirements. Electricity is one of such energy carrier which may be used in most but not in all applications. There is a need for other energy carriers in the form of fuels which can be stored and used, for example, in the transportation sector. This is a role that hydrogen can fulfill in a future energy system - hydrogen satisfies the conditions of sustainability, can be produced from renewable energy sources and together with electricity can satisfy all energy needs. Although the role of hydrogen in a future energy system can be envisioned with some certainty, the problem is the transition, i.e. switching from the present energy system based on fossil fuels to the future energy system based on renewable energy sources. Of course, such transition cannot happen overnight, but the question is where and how to start and at which pace to proceed. Insistence on short term economic results favors 'status-quo', particularly without internalization of all external, past, present and future costs related to energy supply. Although a large scale use of renewable energy sources (and their energy carriers) may cause economic hardship, such disturbances could be of minor size compared to a havoc that continuous use of finite and polluting fossil fuels will most likely eventually bring. A decision to switch to a new energy system must be made on a global level, and so must be the monitoring and managing of the transition process. Only in such long-term global transition hydrogen as fuel has a future. Planning of energy supply in 2030 and afterwards cannot be done solely on extrapolation from the past energy needs, technologies and trends. By 2030, transition to a new energy system should be in full swing. Because of that the emphasis of energy plans and strategies must be put on rational use of energy and on greater use of renewable energy sources. Croatia has more favorable natural geo-climatic conditions than most of Europe. Theoretically, with such strategy Croatia could become energy independent. In such strategy, hydrogen could have a significant role. Hydrogen would be used as transportation fuel and for covering needs for electricity in the periods when the renewable energy sources are not sufficient. At which extent hydrogen would be used depends a great deal on the global trends. Croatia, because of its size, geographical position and climate could become European and regional leader in the application of new energy technologies.(author)

[en] Recent discussions at the Washington International Renewable Energy Conference (WIREC), hosted in March 2008 by the United States Government, with nearly 9000 participants including 103 ministers from 126 countries, concluded that a major acceleration in the adoption of renewable energy technologies was needed by mid-century. Because of different climatic conditions and societal preferences, regional cooperation is expected to play a major role in the efficient adoption of appropriate renewable energy technologies, and countries with special expertise in specific technologies seem eager to collaborate internationally to promote global goals in renewable energy. A review will be given of what we learned from this conference about renewable energy research and development strategies with a special focus given to using this basic knowledge base to promote the development of renewable energy technologies appropriate to specific regions of the world.(author)

[en] Global emissions of greenhouse-gases have increased markedly as a result of human activities since pre-industrial times. This increase in emissions has lead to unequivocal global warming, which is evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level. Reducing the risk of irreversible climate impacts requires thus the mitigation of global GHG emissions aiming at the long-term stabilization of atmospheric GHG concentrations. Achieving this goal translates into the need of reducing emissions to virtually zero over long time-frames. Yet international agreement on a long-term climate policy target remains a distant prospect, due to both scientific uncertainty and political disagreement on the appropriate balance between mitigation costs and reduced risks of dangerous impacts. At the same time, growing emissions of greenhouse gases continue to increase the amount of climate change we are committed to over the long term. Over the next few decades, these growing emissions may make some potentially desirable long term goals unattainable. Recent analysis conducted at IIASA indicates the need of major energy transitions over the next few decades. For example, staying below the target suggested by the European Union of 2 C warming (with just a 50% likelihood) will require the massive deployment of zero-carbon energy by 2050, and a tippling of the contribution of zero-carbon energy globally to more than 60% by that time. Although there are large uncertainties with respect to the deployment of individual future technologies, there is strong evidence that no single mitigation measure alone would be sufficient for achieving the stabilization of GHG concentrations at low levels. A wide portfolio of technologies across all GHG-intensive sectors is needed for cost-effective emissions reductions. The bulk of these emissions reductions would need to come from the energy sector, with the forest and agricultural sectors playing an important role for the cost-effectiveness. Energy-related measures range from energy conservation and efficiency improvements to shifts away from carbon-intensive coal to cleaner fuels (such as natural gas, renewable, and nuclear), as well as 'add-on' technologies such as carbon capture and storage. Other important measures include changes in agricultural practices to reduce CH₄ and N₂O emissions, and enhancement of terrestrial sink activities in the forest sector. Reducing the risks of climate change significantly, requires fundamental structural changes of the energy system in the long term, combined with accelerated technology diffusion and early investments over the next few decades. In addition, appropriate and effective investment incentives need to be in place for development, acquisition, transfer, and deployment of new technologies. Achieving a trend-reversal of presently declining trends of R and D expenditures in environmentally friendly energy technologies will thus be central for addressing the climate change challenge.(author)

[en] The World Energy Council (WEC) with the technical support of ADEME (the French agency for environment and energy management) carries out every 3 years a report on the review of the energy efficiency policies implemented around the world. To provide a diagnosis of the situation, three complementary topics are analysed. Firstly, a monitoring of the recent trend of energy efficiency trends over the period 1980-2006 is performed with more than 20 energy efficiency indicators at sectoral and end uses levels by regions and main countries. Results show that at world level, the primary energy intensities has decreased by 1.6% per annum since 1990 with an acceleration in the recent past due to energy prices increase. Secondly, through a questionnaire sent to all the national WEC committees, a survey has been conducted on the energy efficiency policy implemented. Based on a sample of more than 70 countries, of which half are non OECD countries, a synthesis has been carried out showing convergence, but also divergences in the policy mix according to national circumstances across countries. Finally, 5 selected study cases about in-depth evaluation of the impacts of specific policies have been conducted by international experts. This in-depth analysis based on several good practices provides relevant inputs for decisions makers. Recommendations and conclusions on policies implementations are drawn. This WEC project is a unique forum of exchange of information among countries. All documents are gathered in data bases available in www.worldenergy.org.(author)

[en] The power sector in the Republic of Macedonia started the restructuring process in 2000 by corporatization of the state owned vertically integrated utility 'Elektrostopanstvo na Makedonija' (ESM). However, major changes happened after 2003. First, an independent Energy Regulatory Commission (ERC) was established and later ESM was unbundled into three companies: MEPSO (TSO), 'ELEM' (Generation) and ESM-Distribution (DSO). The market model that was adopted, in essence, was a combination of the Single Buyer and wholesale competition models. The idea was to establish a transitional legal framework that would later be further developed to allow competition on retail level in accordance with EU directives and the SEE Energy Treaty. The wholesale competition was meant for the large industrial customers that had right to choose if they would buy electricity in the (regional) market or stay on the tariff system. However, since there is no competition on generation level in the country, and regional market prices were higher than the regulated prices, the wholesale component didn't really worked. In 2007 and 2008 the Energy law was changed to enforce the wholesale competition. With these changes MEPSO was replaced by ELEM to serve as Single buyer for captive (distribution) customers. Although the Government of Macedonia (GoM) claimed that these changes further enhance the market model, in reality they provide very little (if any) improvements in the sector since 2005. As a result, there were no possibilities to open the market for all non-residential customers as of January 1, 2008. There are several reasons that led to stagnation in the liberalization process. Failure to develop a number of secondary legislation documents and very low electricity prices for captive customers were probably the most relevant issues. In order to proceed with the liberalization process relevant institutions need to develop market code, establish sustainable balancing market, and upgrade the tariff system and unbundle the tariffs. These issues are crucial for the next step - opening of the market for non-residential customers. Low electricity tariffs have been major hurdle in the process. However, given the standard of households it is very prudent to have appropriate approach in order to provide the necessary environment for liberalization of the rest of the market. The GoM needs to develop appropriate social mechanisms for protection of families with low income in order to eliminate the cross subsidies that exist in the current tariff system. Also, addressing the demand side in the sector, the GoM has to be more aggressive in promoting and supporting EE measures and technologies, as well as expansion of the gas distribution network to reduce the demand for electricity needed for space heating(author)

[en] The Paper presents possible projections for energy sector development in the Republic of Slovenia till 2030. The final energy consumption scenarios are discussed with special focus on electricity consumption. Different ways of energy supply satisfaction and possible consumption cover scenarios with environment effect estimation are analyzed. All important environment impact factors are determined. Special attention is dedicated to geo-strategic place of Slovenia in the energy sector development of the whole region and its influence on energy supply method in Slovenia.(author)

[en] This Paper elaborates the problems of energy sector development planning in the conditions of limitations which will result from global climate agreements. The Paper brings the analysis of the planning problems, the influence of primary energy forms and technologies. It also defines the planning risks, limitations and requirements; presented are the pilot investigations of possible impacts of the development limitations with significant CO₂ emission reduction on the energy production and consumption patterns and indicated are significant structural changes and cost increase.(author)

[en] This paper analyzes the factors that influence the need for constructing new oil and gas pipelines which will enable greater and safer crude oil and gas supply to the EU and other European states. These are primarily the growth in crude oil and gas supply with moderate increase in crude oil consumption and significant growth in gas consumption. Besides, the EU has clearly defined its energy policy demanding for enhancement of the supply security by diversification of routes and sources of crude oil and gas supply and energy supply respectfully. The emphasis of this policy is put on greater share of renewable in energy production and consumption, as well as on reduction of CO₂ emissions. Majority of potential oil and gas pipelines should pass through the Southeast European region, including the Republic of Croatia. Given the fact that construction of such highly budgeted projects carries a risk, a legislative and institutional framework was created by the Energy Community Treaty (2006), according to which the national legislations have to be harmonized with the EU acquis communautaire (or such harmonization will occur in the transition period). The possibilities are considered of constructing potential large oil and gas pipelines passing through the countries of Southeast and Central Europe. However, only some of the projects contemplated nowadays will be constructed and they will have to meet both energy and economic criteria, as well as the environmental protection requirements and especially the increase in crude oil and gas supply security.(author)

[en] Electrical power system security is a loose term, which cuts across several areas of the power sector: planning of the construction of production facilities, supply of primary energy sources (long-term contracts on fuel procurement), planning of transmission and distribution networks under the N-1 criterion, and real-time management (power adequacy). It is well known that ?ve years is the shortest time unit in planning electrical power system security, and that this is precisely the fact that troubles most power experts. Since the implementation of the reform of the Croatian energy sector in 2001, a larger number of power producers have been established and are active on the liberalised market. Before the reform, responsibility for electrical power system security was in the hands of the Government, its agencies, and the Croatian Electrical Utility (HEP). Today, there is a division of authorisation, with the consequent division of responsibilities. The objective of this paper is to show the relations between the authorisation and the responsibilities of various entities that determine the security of the electrical power system.(author)