The publication of “On the Origin of Species” by Darwin in 1859 set the stage for the emergence of a new paradigm. No longer was biology accredited to the whim of an omnipotent mystical being; for the first time the diversity of life was seen as the result of a plausible physical mechanism which led to complex organisms and species from simpler common ancestors. Darwin’s theory assumed a fierce battle for survival of the individual against the hostile biotic and abiotic components of its environment. This fight for survival suggested an implicit metaphysical “will to survive” programmed within each organism, which, together with variability in reproduction, provides sufficient elements for natural selection to drive the evolutionary process. Such a process would lead to ever more apt forms of organisms until reaching what Darwin considered to be a state of “near perfection”. The biosphere, under this paradigm, was considered to be an emergent system, the result of the sum of the many individual or collective struggles for survival.

The annunciation of the theory of Gaia by Lovelock (2005) in the 1970’s added a completely new dimension to the biosphere. No longer was life subjected to the unrelenting demands of the environment, but living organisms, collectively or individually, could, in fact, alter their physical environment, in such a manner that seemed to be beneficial to their survival. It was found, for example, that organisms had transformed the Earth’s atmosphere in such a manner that sunlight could penetrate through to the surface where it was needed by biology. Organisms even regulated the temperature of Earth’s surface to keep it comfortable for themselves, and to ensure the presence of the vital liquid water in the biosphere. This biotic regulation of Earth’s temperature to within the range for liquid water seemed remarkable considering that the Sun’s integrated luminosity had increased by as much as 30% since the very beginnings of life on Earth (Sagan and Chyba, 1997).