The same strong feelings of piety and righteousness that led knights to take the cross and march to war also affected the common people, who lacked the wealth or training to do the same. The repeated failure of the organized Crusades to reclaim Jerusalem and the True Cross frustrated all Christians. This combination of frustration and strong religious enthusiasm led to frequent and sometimes bizarre manifestations of popular piety, such as the so-called Children’s Crusade in 1212.

The Children’s Crusade was neither a true Crusade nor made up of an army of children. The pope did not call for it—indeed, no one did. Instead, it was an unsanctioned popular movement, whose beginning and ending are hard to trace. It is known, however, that in early 1212 a young man named Nicholas from Cologne became the focal point for a popular movement that swept through the Rhineland. After having allegedly received divine instruction, Nicholas set out to rescue Jerusalem from the Muslims. He believed that when he reached the Mediterranean, God would dry up the waters so that he could walk across to Palestine. Hundreds and then thousands of children, adolescents, women, the elderly, the poor, parish clergy, and the occasional thief joined him in his march south. In every town the people hailed the “Crusaders” as heroes, although the educated clergy ridiculed them as deranged or deceived. In July 1212, despite the summer heat that had caused many to give up and return home, Nicholas and his followers crossed the Alps into Italy.

Word of Nicholas’s Crusade spread across Europe, sparking similar “miracles” and popular movements, although usually on a much smaller scale. One such movement, which may actually have preceded the Rhineland Crusade, occurred in Cloyes, a small town in France, where Stephen, a 12-year-old shepherd, had a vision of Jesus, who appeared dressed as a pilgrim and asked for bread. After receiving some bread from the boy, Jesus gave him a letter for the king of France. Stephen then left for Paris and attracted hundreds of followers from the same constituency that Nicholas of Cologne did. As they marched toward Paris, they sang, “Lord God, exalt Christianity! Lord God, restore to us the True Cross!” When they reached the city, Stephen delivered the letter to Philip Augustus. The king thanked the boy for the letter, and then everyone cheered and went home. The letter’s contents are not known with certainty, but it was probably an exhortation for the king to once again Crusade—something Philip had no intention of doing.

By late summer Nicholas’s multitudes had reached Lombardy and entered various port cities. Nicholas himself arrived with a large gathering at Genoa on August 25. To the great disappointment of the “Crusaders,” the sea did not open for them, nor did it allow them to walk across its waves. At this point many probably returned home, while others remained in Genoa. It was said that some marched to Rome, where Innocent III praised their zeal but released them from their “vows.” The fate of Nicholas is also unclear. Some claimed that he joined the Fifth Crusade, others that he died in Italy.

The Teutonic Knights and the Baltic Crusades

Founded during the Third Crusade, the Teutonic Knights were a German military order modeled on the Hospitallers. By the 13th century the order had begun to shift its focus from the Holy Land to Europe. From 1211 to 1225 it waged war against pagans in Transylvania and effectively Christianized the region, but it was subsequently expelled by the king of Hungary. The grand master of the order, Hermann von Salza, then agreed to assist the Polish duke Conrad of Mazovia in his war against the pagan Prussians of the Baltic region. The emperor and the pope agreed that the Teutonic Knights should rule all pagan lands that they conquered, and during the 13th and 14th centuries the order conquered all of Prussia and the northern Baltic region, building a prosperous Christian state there. As rulers the Teutonic Knights played an important part in European history for many centuries.