European Kingdoms

Hohenstaufen (Swabian) Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire
AD 1138 - 1268

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The Holy Roman empire had a tortuous and complex history, with origins in the Merovingian Frankish empire. The early eighth century AD saw the rise of the Carolingians under Charles, later known as Charles 'the Great', or Charlemagne. He was able to reverse Frankish fortunes to found a vast European empire.

Shortly after he had completed his conquest of much of the Germanic-speaking lands by defeating the mighty Saxons, in AD 800 he was crowned 'Roman Emperor' by Pope Leo III. The rule of Charlemagne laid the foundations of future monarchies in Western Europe and Central Europe.

Following his death, during the governance of the Frankish Roman emperors, the Treaty of Verdun in AD 843 confirmed the official division of the empire between Charlemagne's surviving three grandsons. Overall control in the east was labelled the Holy Roman empire. With the accession of the Saxon king of Germany, Otto I, the power of the Germanic Roman empire was confirmed.

Five stem duchies also emerged at the same time in German lands, all of which were powerful divisions of the old territory of East Francia. These were Bavaria, Franconia, Saxony, Swabia, and Thuringia, the most powerful of which would often act as king-maker within the empire. By the twelfth century these were in trouble, with internal tensions beginning to tear them apart.

In the early eleventh century AD, Franconia had become the territorial heartland of the line of 'Franconian Emperors', many of whom had their power base here. Then the Hohenstaufen dynasty gained power in the duchy of Swabia. It swiftly became one of the most powerful families, holding onto the duchy for most of the remainder of its existence and supplying a dynasty of emperors.

Because Franconia had provided a power base for the previous dynasty of emperors, it also remained a centre of power for the early Hohenstaufen emperors, thereby preventing it from establishing a clear regional governing structure which may have ensured its survival.

The heir apparent to the imperial throne was traditionally titled 'king of the Romans'. The title originally referred to the uncrowned emperor himself, but by the twelfth century it was being used for the heir following his election to that role during his predecessor's lifetime, but before he succeeded to the throne.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Sword, Miter, and Cloister: Nobility and the Church in Burgundy, 980-1198, Constance Brittain Bouchard (New York 1987), from Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians 751-987, R McKitterick (1983), from Noble Strategies in an Early Modern Small State: The Mahuet of Lorraine, Charles T Lipp, from The History of the Franks, Volume II, Gregory of Tours (O M Dalton, Trans, 1967), from From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms, Thomas F X Noble, from Popular Revolt, Dynastic Politics, and Aristocratic Factionalism in the Early Middle Ages: The Saxon Stellinga Reconsidered, Eric J Goldberg (Speculum, Vol 70, No 3, Jul 1995), and from External Links: the Foundation for Medieval Genealogy, and from Encyclopaedia.com, and Cranach Digital Archive (in German and English), and Special Collections (University of Arizona).)

1138 - 1152

Uncrowned successor to Franconians. Conrad I of Franconia.

1152 - 1190

Nephew. Duke Frederick III of Swabia.

1158 - 1162

Supported as always by his brother-in-law, Louis 'the Iron' of Thuringia, Frederick claims direct imperial control of Italy at the Diet of Roncaglia in 1158. The diet, held near Piacenza, includes representatives of cities in northern Italy, plus general nobles and senior church officials of the empire.

The Hohenstaufen family of Swabia gained a strong foothold on power in the late eleventh century and went on to supply an entire dynasty of German emperors which included Frederick Barbarossa

It is held as a direct response to raids carried out by Frederick Barbarossa in Italy, who is attempting to restore his rights over the increasingly independent trading cities there. The diet finds in his favour so the cities of northern Italy refuse to accept the decision (led by the Veronese League).

Frederick imposes his will by force of arms, and in 1162 razes Milan to the ground (supported on campaign by Herman of Carinthia). The Italian response is to unite under the Lombard League.

1167

Frederick IV of Swabia, gifted the duchy by his cousin, Frederick Barbarossa, dies in Rome while on campaign there. Frederick Barbarossa passes the duchy to his own three year-old son. He effectively controls it directly through his tight control of the succession, not only through these two Fredericks, but also through Frederick VI, who only survives him by a year.

The Catholic Church's college of cardinals (seen here in 1922) was formed in Rome in 1061 to elect the pope, one of the highly important reforms which were enacted by Pope Nicholas II

1176 - 1177

Venice offers hospitality to Pope Alexander III and Frederick Barbarossa, and the republic arbitrates the peace between them following Barbarossa's defeat at Legnano the year before (29 May 1176).

1180

Frederick comes into conflict with Henry 'the Lion' Welf, duke of Bavaria. Frederick dispossesses Henry of his lands and passes Bavaria to the Wittelsbachs, and the County Palatine of Saxony to Louis III, landgrave of Thuringia (he promptly passes it onto his brother, the future Landgrave Herman I, in 1881).

Henry's Saxon duchy is also divided while the vassalage of Pomerania is taken directly by the emperor. The old stem duchies are finally abolished entirely in favour of more numerous territorial divisions.

The second marriage of Henry 'the Lion' was to Matilda, daughter of Henry II of England, but his eventual conflict with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa cost him his lands and titles

1180 - 1202

German Christian missionaries arrive in the Baltic tribal territories of the Lats and Ests and their neighbouring tribes converting small numbers of Balts and probably establishing nascent congregations.

On the whole the Balts appear reluctant to convert, perhaps fervently so, which means German Crusaders are sent to the Lats and their neighbours to convert the pagan population - a pretext for a grab for land and resources which is supported by the Pope. They are strongly opposed, although extremely little is known about the Livonian native leaders who lead that opposition.

1183

The Peace of Constance agrees that Frederick I shall renounce his rights of sovereignty over northern Italy and the cities of the Lombard League. The cities agree to remain loyal to the empire but will pursue an independent course when it comes to their own governance.

The Battle of Legnano on 29 May 1176 ended the hopes of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of dominating Italy following his defeat by the Lombard League

1190

Frederick I Barbarossa enters Anatolia via the Dardanelles as part of the Third Crusade. His impressive and large force swiftly hands out defeats at the battles of Philomelium and Iconium, both against the sultanate of Rum.

The sultanate's capital is occupied and Rum hits one of its lowest points. On his way towards a besieged Acre, the aging but still capable Barbarossa subsequently drowns in the River Saleph, seemingly while bathing but possibly having been exhausted by the Anatolian summer heat. The death causes hundreds of German Crusaders to return home.

1190 - 1197

Son. King of Naples & Sicily (1194-1197).

1197 - 1198

Philip Hohenstaufen, youngest brother of Henry VI and a former bishop of Würzburg, has already been made duke of Tuscany in 1195. In 1196 he had become duke of Swabia on the death of his brother Conrad, and now appears to be the guardian of Henry's son, the infant Frederick (II).

Philip Hohenstaufen climbed through the ranks of the nobility during his lifetime, from bishop of Würzburg, through duke of Tuscany and then Swabia, to become emperor of the Germans

In 1197, Philip sets out to fetch Frederick from Sicily for his coronation as king of the Germans when he hears of the emperor's death and returns at once to Germany.

Many other members of the German nobility also hurry back to their seats in order to protect their interests during the coming struggle. They have been involved in the short-lived German Crusade (otherwise known as the Crusade of 1197 or the Crusade of Henry VI), including Ulrich II of Carinthia.

Henry VI had been determined to complete the work of his father in the Holy Land with a fresh expedition, but he himself had died before even embarking. Those who remain in the Holy Land capture territory for the kingdom of Jerusalem between Tyre and Tripoli, restoring the land link to the county of Tripoli.

The Benedictine St Paul's Abbey in the Lavanttal (Benediktinerstift Sankt Paul im Lavanttal) was founded in Carinthia in 1091 by Count Engelbert I of Spanheim-Ortenburg, margrave of Istria and father to dukes Henry IV and Engelbert of Carinthia, and now lies in eastern Austria of which Carinthia is a part

However, the campaign ends abruptly with the recapture of the lordships of Beirut and Sidon in 1198 (both lost to Saladin in 1187 - the brotherhood of the Teutonic Knights is also elevated in this year to a spiritual military order, and its priors become grand masters).

Hostility to the kingship of a child is growing and, after Philip is selected as defender of the empire during Frederick's minority, he consents to his own election as emperor. He is elected as the German king at Mühlhausen on 8 March 1198, and is crowned at Mainz on 8 September.

A number of princes who are hostile to Philip, lead by Adolph, archbishop of Cologne, elect an anti-king in the person of Otto of Brunswick, second son of Henry 'the Lion', duke of Saxony. The subsequent war is largely a north-south affair as Philip has his power base in Swabia.

Already veteran soldiers from their time in the Holy Land, the Teutonic Knights would have presented a fearsome spectacle to the Prussians - and a deadly opponent

1198 - 1208

Duke of Swabia (1196-1208). Murdered.

1198 - 1215

Rival. Earl of York (1190-1218). Duke of Swabia (1208-1212).

1202 - 1214

In a conflict which is vital to the French monarchy, the 'War' of Bouvines involves John of England, HRE Otto IV, and also Thiébaut of Lorraine on the one side, and Philip II on the other supported by Otto III of Burgundy.

The culmination is the Battle of Bouvines on 27 July 1214. The French are victorious, while John loses the duchy of Normandy and his other French possessions. Thiébaut is taken prisoner during the rout but is freed soon afterwards.

1204 - 1208

The war between rival emperors, Philip Hohenstaufen of Swabia and Otto of Brunswick, lasts with varying fortunes until Hermann of Thuringia submits in 1204. Adolph of Cologne and Henry I, duke of Brabant soon follow suit, but Philip is murdered before the final peace can be agreed.

Otto secures the throne for himself (and also Swabia) until 1215 when the young Frederick can finally succeed his father, Henry VI.

Henry, count (and prince from 1218) of Anhalt is portrayed in the Codex Manesse, which was copied and illustrated in Zurich between 1305-1340

More opportunistically perhaps, Duke Bernard of Carinthia supports Philip until his death, and then Otto at his coronation, and then he switches to Frederick II after 1212. With the diminution of the emperor's authority, the prince-bishop of Liège is isolated, becoming a territorial prince like any other, even if he is charged with maintaining spiritual power (see feature link).

1215 - 1250

King of Naples & Sicily (1197). Swabia (1212). Jerusalem (1225).

1215 - 1216

The confirmation of Frederick's election as Holy Roman emperor in 1215 (delayed from 1198 and the death of his father, Henry VI) allows him to devolve power in Swabia to his son, Henry, in 1216, while he concentrates on the trappings of higher office.

1219 - 1227

German prince-bishops consolidate their conquest of the central Baltics (modern Latvia and South Estonia), otherwise known as Livonia, while the Danish kingdom takes North Estonia. In 1227, the overlordship of Pomerania is recovered by Frederick II from the Danes.

This painting contains a somewhat romantic depiction of the Battle of Lyndanisse and the discovery of what would be accepted as the Danish national flag, falling from the sky (Archbishop Andreas Sunonis of Lund, soon to be vice-regent of North Estonia, advises the seated King Valdemar II about the victory to come)

1220

Henry, Frederick's son, now shares his father's office, as co-emperor. Although he is named Henry VIII, his numbering is not official, as he is not sole emperor. That number is reused by Henry of Luxembourg in 1308-1313.

1220 - 1235

Son. King of Naples & Sicily (1212-17). Duke of Swabia (1216-35).

1224

German crusaders recapture all of the rebellious Estonian provinces and Vetseke of Koknese is reduced to holding just the Unguenois centre at Tharbata. Bishop Hermann of Buxhoeveden takes control of Ugaunia from his base in Dorpat while the Order of the Knights of the Sword is granted control of Sakala.

1228 - 1229

When the Fifth Crusade (Second Expedition) is decreed, Frederick II is excommunicated both for not taking part and then for going there and negotiating possession of Jerusalem (until 1244). He is accompanied on his expedition by Matthew II of Lorraine amongst others.

To rub salt into the wound, Pope Gregory IX invades his territories while he is away, and it is probably this invasion which regains control of Spoleto for the Papal states. Relations between the pope and the emperor steadily decline thereafter, to the point at which they are constantly at war with one another.

On top of the ruins of the ancient city of Brufa, which lie about twenty kilometres to the south-east of the town of Spoleto itself, the Lombards built Monteleone di Spoleto

1241 - 1242

Mongol leaders Batu Khan and Subedei turn their attention farther into Europe. They enter Galicia, capturing the capital and destroying the cathedral there and ending any hopes that the Galicians might have had of holding onto Kyiv.

Both Poland and Hungary are also conquered, with European defeats at Liegnitz and the River Sajo (the Battle of Mohi). Austria, Dalmatia, and Moravia also fall under Mongol domination, and the tide seems unstoppable.

However, the death of Ogedei Khan causes the Mongols to withdraw, with Batu Khan intent on securing his conquests in the lands of the Rus thanks to the possibility that his rival, Guyuk Khan, could be elected great khan.

1245

Due to Frederick's agents acting in the Papal states, Pope Innocent is forced to leave Rome in disguise and make his way to Lyon in France. He gathers together all the bishops who can make their way there and holds the First Council of Lyon.

Rome's Santa Maria in Trastevere (on the right) was perhaps founded in the third century AD, restored in the eighth and ninth, and totally rebuilt in the twelfth, much of which survives today

The emperor is excommunicated (again) and is declared deposed, relieving his subjects of their allegiance to him. This sends shockwaves throughout Europe, and Innocent's life is only spared from retribution by the death of the emperor in 1250.

1246 - 1247

Rival. Last Ludovingian landgrave of Thuringia.

1247 - 1256

Rival. Count of Holland.

1250 - 1254

Uncrowned. Ruled Jerusalem & Naples & Sicily. Duke of Swabia.

1254 - 1273

With the death of Conrad from malaria, his young son, Conradin is recognised as the new duke of Swabia and also as the new emperor by his supporters.

He fails actually to succeed his father in the latter role, however, and an interregnum follows in which no sole emperor is recognised and Germany begins a period of collapse with no central authority to hold it together.

Duchess Sophia led the fight to secure the various Hessian lands as a unified landgraviate for her son, Henry of Brabant, otherwise known as Henry 'the Child' due to his young age

This collapse involves the break-up of stem duchies such as Swabia and Franconia (notably including the formation of a landgraviate of Hessen), while Saxony had already been forcibly divided in 1180 (see feature link for more on the system of imperial states which replace the stem duchies). A series of 'Non-Dynastic Emperors' now follows.