Beowulf – A text of endless interest

by Davide Marcadent

ABSTRACT: 

The aim of this paper is to provide an introduction to one of the most famous and seminal works of English literature, namely Beowulf. This paper provides an insight into the philological problems of the text, the academic discussion that developed around it, and the reason why the text still has resonance in today’s adaptations, both in books, films and TV series. Moreover, the paper provides a summary of the plot of the two parts of the story and makes suggestions about the period when the events took place, another well-known issue that has not found a clear-cut answer yet.  

1. Introduction   

Beowulf is a celebrated literary text that belongs to an unspecified period, about which much academic discussion has been sparked, and that is also a unique work for several reasons: indeed, it is the only extensive epic poem (3182 verses) of the early medieval Germanic world and there is only one surviving version of it that is referred to in philology as “testimony”, i.e. a manuscript, a book or any form of written support that provides evidence of the text’s existence. If one claims that there is only one testimony for Beowulf, it means that there is only one copy of the text in only one manuscript. The text was written in Old English as an epic tale of heroism set in ancient Scandinavia, recounting the deeds of the titular hero. With courage and strength, Beowulf faces fearsome monsters and ultimately confronts a dragon in his later years. The poem explores themes of bravery, loyalty, and the transient nature of life, leaving readers to uncover the rich details and legendary battles within its verses. 

2. The main features of the text and the role of alliteration  

As previously mentioned, Beowulf is the only surviving work of the so-called epic poetry of the early medieval Germanic world. The text consists of 3182 lines written in Old English according to a very recurrent and constant scheme that is typical of early Germanic poetry: the versification follows the traditional Germanic style, based on the long alliterative verse, with four main rhythmic stresses (called arsi) and a caesura. “Alliterative” means that there are words in the same verse that begin with the same consonant so as to provide the text with musicality. An example of this is: “mýnte se mánscaða/ mánna cýnnes/ súmne besýrwan/ in séle þam héan”1, where the letters in bold alliterate with one another. As regards consonants, they can only alliterate, only if they are exactly the same consonant, such as <b> can only alliterate with <b> and not, e.g., with <f>, whereas vowels do alliterate in any combination, hence <a> alliterates with <a> but also with <e>, <i>, <o>, <u>.   The use of alliteration is one of the most salient features of the literary production of this period and was frequently used up to the beginning of the 11th century, when the Normans conquered England after the battle of Hastings. However, the alliteration was rediscovered during the 14th century and reintroduced into the English poetry; this is the so-called “Great Alliterative Revival”.2 

3. Some preliminary but essential remarks  

When dealing with an ancient text like Beowulf, it is crucial to distinguish between various levels of dating. First, there is the dating of the text itself, which concerns when Beowulf actually may have been written. Then, there is the dating of the manuscript, which must be considered since the extant witness is not the original but a copy. Finally, there is the dating of the events narrated. The specific issues related to the dating will be discussed in more detail in the following sections. 

4. The manuscript  

There is only one existing testimony of Beowulf. The text is inside a manuscript called Cotton Vitellius A XV which is preserved today in the British Museum. The manuscript belongs to the end of the 10th or the early years of the 11th century. Moreover, the manuscript includes other texts—both in prose and poetry, covering secular and religious topics—united by the theme of the marvelous. The manuscript was damaged by a fire in the 18th century; therefore, some lines or parts of lines are missing and there is no possibility to clearly reconstruct the text, despite the several attempts that have been made so far. There is indeed a considerable number of critical studies and philological attempts3 that aimed to reconstruct the missing parts, despite the awareness that there is no certainty. The evident errors4 in the text demonstrate that it is a copy, indicating that it is certainly older than the manuscript. The first edition of Beowulf was released in 1815, when the text was published by the Icelandic philologist Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin.   

5. Dating the text  

Dating the manuscript is not simply additional information; on the contrary, it helps to date the text itself. Knowing that the manuscript dates to the end of the 10th/ the beginning of the 11th century, one can take this period as the so-called terminus ante quem, i.e. the term before which the text was written. In other words, there is clear evidence that Beowulf was composed before this date. In any case, this aspect of Beowulf has stimulated and still sparks much academic debate, as no definitive answer has been provided yet.  According to some scholars, the language of the poem—which lacks no Scandinavian influence—supports an earlier dating, prior to the Scandinavian presence in England. This last point needs some explanation: in 793, the first Viking5 attack on the English coast occurred against the monastery of Lindisfarne, which was violently plundered. This marks the beginning of a period of decline. The intensification of Viking attacks in the North leads to a shift of the country's cultural life to the South. Again, it is important to point out that monasteries were the main target for this sort of attack not because the Vikings wanted to impose their religion (they had no interest in doing so), but because monasteries were generally full of wealth, gold, and silver. Some time later, between 865-878, the “Great Heathen Army” led by Ivar the Boneless, son of the legendary Ragnar Lodbrok, devastated the English kingdoms. The Scandinavians settled in large numbers on English soil, forming autonomous kingdoms. Only the kingdom of the West Saxons (Wessex) retained its independence.  After this necessary explanation, let us now go back to Beowulf and the problem of the composition period. The text might have been composed in the 8th century or, at the latest, the early 9th century, in fact before the Scandinavian invasion. In this context, the poem could have been intended for the court of an English king with strong Scandinavian ties or a group of monks interested in ancient Germanic legends. One might be tempted to consider this unusual, although this is absolutely not the case. Contacts between England and the Scandinavian countries are attested, in particular by archaeology, already between the 6th and the 7th century. The most well-known example is the treasure and the discovery of Sutton Hoo, whose fame does not need any further explanation.  However, there are other scholars and experts who date the text to a completely different period, namely the 9th or 10th century. The main argument in support of this theory is the plot of Beowulf, which is entirely set in Scandinavia. This is particularly interesting as this may suggest the existence of an Anglo-Scandinavian court where a poet might have been tasked with addressing both cultures. At the time, there were indeed numerous Scandinavian colonies on English soil, and it is possible that the courts of the kings of these groups were bilingual. One last remark: a last theory suggests a dating to the period of the Danish dynasty (after 1014), which is nonetheless to be excluded, precisely because the book containing the text seems to be datable with certainty to an earlier time.  To sum up, there is still no clear answer to the matter of the dating of the text, and the scholarly debate around it remains open to questions and suggestions. 

6. Dating the plot    

Beowulf tells of heroes and Scandinavian rulers of the pre-Christian era, without explicitly establishing a chronology. However, we have information about Hygelac, Beowulf’s uncle, from the work of the Frankish historian Gregory of Tours, who mentions him under the Latinized name “Chlochilaicus”: he was a Scandinavian ruler who lived at the beginning of the 6th century. By the time he was alive, there were numerous Scandinavian colonies on English soil, and it is possible that the courts of the kings of these groups were bilingual.  

In any case, the core of the poem narrates that Beowulf became the king of the Geats (Old Norse: Gautar), and, after his death, the Geats were conquered and subjugated by the Swedes. Although we have very scant historical information on Scandinavia prior to the 10th century, numerous clues suggest that the kingdom of the Geats (Gautland in Old Norse, roughly corresponding to the region of Götaland in present-day Sweden) was subjugated by the Swedes during the 6th century. The poem's allusion to the Geats being subjugated by the Swedes after Beowulf’s death aligns with archaeological and historical evidence of inter-tribal conflicts and the shifting power dynamics within Scandinavia during this period. The events narrated in the poem are therefore placed between the beginning and the end of the 6th century. 

7. The plot  

The narrative of Beowulf can be split into two sections: there is a first section which occupies approximately two-thirds of the whole text and a second section, set several years after the first one.   

      7.1 The first section – Beowulf fights Grendel and his mother  

      7.1.2 Beowulf sets off for Denmark  

The narrative begins by describing the existence of the reign of the Geats, whose king is namely Beowulf. After that, the reader is told that the Danish court has been facing the problem of fighting against a monster for several years without finding a definitive solution. Beowulf is informed about the problem and decides to go to Denmark in order to kill the monster called Grendel. At first, the impression is that Beowulf is particularly self-sacrificing as he offers to fight Grendel. However, the reader understands from the story that there was actually a debt to be settled, dating to the time when Beowulf was only the prince of the Geats and his father was still alive. In any case, he settles out for Denmark heading towards the royal hall of King Hrothgar, called “Heorot”, which means “the deer”.  

       7.1.3 Beowulf’s arrival at the court and the fight with the monster  

The hero's arrival is celebrated with a grand feast, the description of which occupies a considerable section of the verses. For us contemporary readers, this provides a glimpse into the values of the time, particularly the emphasis on hospitality—a fundamental aspect also evident in the ancient Greek world and repeatedly mentioned, for example, in Homer's Odyssey. The feast scene is depicted as a bright moment contrasted with the subsequent description of the dark, unhealthy, damp, and misty environment where Grendel lives. As the feast unfolds, it is revealed that someone is watching from the outside, deeply irritated by it. This is, of course, an anticipation of Grendel, who is thus presented as already belonging to the forces of evil, a notion further confirmed later when he is counted among the descendants of Cain.  

       7.1.4 Beowulf proves his courage  

During the feats, Beowulf declares that he will not simply kill the monster, but that he will do it without using weapons, which causes the astonishment of the other warriors that dislike this exaggeration. However, this proves to be an important (almost providential, even though the religious intervening is here one of the possible interpretations, but not the only one) intuition: the characters, and the reader with them, find out later that the monster is protected by some for of spell that makes him immune to blades. That night, the monster attacks the court. Beowulf is thus involved in a very demanding fight against the monster until he finally manages to take one of his arms away. The monster runs away but dies as a consequence of exsanguination. The monster dies, and Beowulf is then widely celebrated and praised.  

      7.1.5 The victory on Grendel proves to be an illusion  

A feast is held to celebrate the victory with mead. Everyone lies down, including Beowulf. However, during the night, another monster attacks the palace. The king says that this is the second monster, which is indeed Grendel's mother, who kills some soldiers. Beowulf is thus forced to undertake this second task: killing the second monster. A description follows that, given the setting on the coasts of Denmark, seems somewhat implausible. It speaks of very tall rocks and steep cliffs overlooking the sea, even though the Danish peninsula is known for being one of the flattest regions in Europe. Obviously, this idea contributes to creating an image of Grendel's mother's lair as a truly impervious place. Then follows a description in which Beowulf dives into a pond, fights against monsters, and then climbs through a tunnel to reach the lair of the two monsters. Grendel's mother begins an intense fight, and Beowulf struggles to gain the upper hand. However, a sword is illuminated by a ray of sunlight, and the protagonist understands that it is the weapon that can kill the monster. From the description, we understand that the two monsters are probably trolls, strong but very foolish creatures. The second monster is killed as well and Beowulf takes a piece of it to the castle so as If he had a prize. He spends again some time at the court in Denmark and then sets off for England again.  

8. The second section – Beowulf and the dragon  

The second section begins by narrating a cunning slave who managed to steal a precious cup from the den of a dragon that was the guardian of an entire treasure. The dragon finds out about the theft and begins to devastate the kingdom of the Geats by burning down farms and villages. Once again, Beowulf is in charge of the mission and has to kill the dragon with a group of soldiers. The description of the beginning of the fight is particularly interesting as the dragon is scared by Beowulf as soon as it sees him. This suggests that Beowulf is a bit more than a common human as the reader can understand from other hints through the text. However, as soon as the dragon appears, the entourage of Beowulf runs away and Beowulf is left alone with his cousin Hygelac. They manage to murder the dragon, although Beowulf is poisoned by the dragon and dies. The narration concludes with Hygelac saying that the kingdom of the Geats will disappear, as the cowardice of the Geats’ warriors will be evident even abroad. The neighbouring countries will indeed attack the kingdom, as is testified by some later chronicles not referring to a Geats’ kingdom any longer.  

9. Visual adaptations of Beowulf  

Beowulf has inspired various visual adaptations across films, video games, and TV series, each bringing a unique interpretation to its well-known narrative. One of the most notable film adaptations is the 2007 animated movie "Beowulf," directed by Robert Zemeckis, which uses motion capture technology to bring the characters to life, blending traditional storytelling with cutting-edge animation. This adaptation captures the mythical elements of the original text, despite taking creative liberties with the storyline. In the realm of video games, titles like "Beowulf: The Game" (2007) allow players to step into the shoes of the legendary hero, engaging in combat and exploring the epic's rich world. The game merges gameplay with the poem's themes of heroism and destiny. Moreover, TV series adaptations, though less common, include shows like "Grendel," which focuses on modern interpretations and settings, reimagining the classic tale in contemporary contexts. Obviously, all these adaptations distance for different reasons from the source text as there are some elements that need to be invented; the portrayal of Grendel is one of the salient examples of this.  

10. Conclusion 

Drawing to a conclusion, this epic poem represents a profound and complex work of early medieval literature, characterized by significant scholarly uncertainty regarding its precise dating and origins. Spanning between the 8th and 10th centuries, the text offers a unique insight into pre-Christian Germanic heroic culture, exploring timeless themes of courage, loyalty, and human mortality through its narrative of the hero Beowulf's battles against monsters and a dragon. The poem's linguistic peculiarity, particularly its use of alliterative verse, demonstrates remarkable poetic innovation, while its singular surviving manuscript serves as a critical (though unique) testimony to medieval literary traditions. Despite challenges in interpretation, Beowulf continues to captivate academic and popular imagination, evidenced by its numerous contemporary adaptations across films, video games, and TV series. Its enduring significance lies not just in its historical value, but in its ability to articulate fundamental human experiences of heroism and struggle that transcend temporal and cultural boundaries, making it a timeless piece of literary heritage that continues to inspire scholarly debate and reinterpretations. 

References:  

1. Bartlett, A. C. The Larger Rhetorical Patterns in Anglo-Saxon Poetry. Columbia University Press, 1935. 
2. Bliss, A. G. The Metre of “Beowulf”. Blackwell, 1958. 
3. Brodeur, A. G. The Art of “Beowulf”. University of California Press, 1959. 
4. Watts, A. Chalmers. The Lyre and the Harp: A Comparative Reconsideration of Oral Tradition in Homer and Old English Epic Poetry. Yale University Press, 1969. 
5. Farrell, R. T. Beowulf, Swedes and Geats. Viking Society for Northern Research, University College London, 1972. 
6. Goldsmith, M. E. The Mode and Meaning of 'Beowulf'. The Athlone Press, 1970.