Edition 9: Inventing Sin...

Welcome to Medieval Monthly, a monthly newsletter bringing you exclusive monthly updates on industry news, podcast interviews, published articles, upcoming events, and of course - all things Medieval History!

If this is our first time meeting, you can learn a little about me and the work I do by clicking here.

From Luke Daly

The Latest: 'Saints and Their Sins' is available for PRE-ORDER

The time has finally come - you can now PRE-ORDER my debut book with Pen and Sword Books.

This can be via:

• The Pen and Sword website
• On Amazon

A Synopsis: Step into the captivating world of the Middle Ages with Saints and Their Sins, a groundbreaking exploration of history like no other. In this remarkable narrative, each chapter takes you on an immersive journey through time, unveiling the vibrant tapestry of events that shaped the medieval era told through the stories of Medieval Saints who experienced them. Gone are the distant voices of emperors and kings; instead, we hear from ordinary people who witnessed the world around them, sharing their intimate thoughts, fears, and attitudes towards world-changing events. Experience the gripping anxiety, fear, and paranoia that accompanied threats to the kingdom of heaven, as these saints fought to defend and restore their faith.

But, as the Church solidifies its position, discover how saints were then utilised as instruments of control to shape public order. Saints and Their Sins goes beyond a mere historical account, delving into topics that resonate with today's world. Uncover the incredible history of Ethiopia, once a magnificent empire that fell into despair at the hands of Christianity, shedding light on Black History; delve into the history of gender and sexuality through the misogynistic St Cuthbert and worship of ‘trans-saint’ Wilgefortis; and witness the fight for equality in indigenous populations in the Americas through Louis Bertrand. Through these stories, saints become a lens to examine the attitudes and complexities of their time.

Inventing Sin: St Augustine and Donatism

“the first and greatest urging of nature is that a man should be at one with himself and therefore should instinctively flee from death, that he should be so thoroughly a friend to himself that he vehemently wishes and desires to be alive, a living being, and to stay alive in this conjunction of body and soul” (City of God, 19.4).

In the annals of Christendom, few figures loom as large as St. Augustine of Hippo, a towering intellect whose theological musings have shaped centuries of doctrine. Among his myriad contributions, one stands out with a particular resonance in our understanding of life and death: the conceptualisation of suicide as a sin. This notion, which has permeated religious and secular moral codes alike, was not always a given. Before Augustine, suicide was seen through various cultural and philosophical lenses, from a noble act of honour to a pragmatic solution to suffering. It was Augustine who, through his profound and intricate theological arguments, cast suicide into the realm of sin, forever altering the moral landscape. Yet, (and I presume this is the case for many) I was under the belief that the concept of suicide as a sin within Christianity had been a tenet since Moses and Samson, or at least since the suicide of Judas following the death of Christ. 

So how was it that a saint in the fourth/fifth century was able to steer the course of a religion? 

The answer resides in a sect of Christianity from North Africa known as Donatism. They were firmly rooted in Northern Africa, especially in present-day Tunisia, Algeria, and Lybia amongst native Berber communities. In their ideology, they were rigorists and believed the church must be a church of "saints", not "sinners". As such they argued that the Christian clergy must be faultless for their ministry to be effective and their prayers to be valid. Sure enough, they blended certain beliefs with Berber customs, but from here it would seem rather perplexing that Augustine would set forth a schism against them given his background before taking the Christian oath. 

Born in 354 to an aristocratic family in the dense forests and arid mountains of Thagaste, now Souk Ahras in Algeria, Augustine entered into a world which was a melting pot of culture, ethnicity and religion. His mother, Monica, was a devout Christian while his father, Patricius, was a staunch Pagan who only sought conversion to Christianity on his deathbed. This, combined with a hybridised culture of North African Berber heritage with Romanised administration, meant that Augustine stood at the conflicting intersection of theology and culture. At the age of 17, while studying at Carthage, he drank, stole, enjoyed sexual exploits, and sought to indulge in his desires through his hedonistic lifestyle. He also read a great deal of Cicero, which he described as having a lasting impression and developed his enthusiasm for philosophy. Much to his mother’s disappointment, however, Augustine also flirted with pagan beliefs and adopted Manichaeism, a highly influential belief system which arose from North Africa in the 270s and contained elements of Christianity and Zoroastrianism. The basis of this ideology was that the world was a battlefield between God and Satan, and humans were merely caught in between this and could only escape through meditation and asceticism.

Nevertheless, the schism with the Donatists arose indirectly out of the persecution under Emperor Diocletian at the beginning of the fourth century. At the time Mensurius, the bishop of Carthage, had endeavoured to check the fanatical spirit in which many Christians courted martyrdom. At the same time, Mensurius's archdeacon, Caecilianus, had been consecrated by the bishop of Aptunga who would be branded a traditor, someone who was deemed impure for Christian sacraments. As such, they formed an opposing candidate, Majorinus, who would then be succeeded by Donatus in 315. The supporters of Donatus grew and formed an ideology based on extreme purity which led them to accuse Caecilianus before Emperor Constantine. Constantine accepted the appeal and the matter was passed to the bishop of Rome and three bishops from Gaul. They decided in favour of Caecilianus and made his consecration valid at a council held at Arles. Majorinus and his supporters appealed against this but were met with severe laws directed against their schism; rather than crushing them, this only fueled them further. Under Donatus, their influence spread throughout Africa and, despite continuous efforts to suppress them, their zeal exponentially increased throughout the fourth century. They especially brought on themselves the vengeance of civil powers by seeking martyrdom for themselves and erupting violence in the countryside. It was here that it gathered the attention of our Saint Augustine. 

Before the fourth century, the moral status of suicide had not yet solidified within Christian thought. When it was considered, it often evaded outright condemnation. It was likely Lactantius, a Christian author from the early fourth century, who first explicitly linked suicide with the commandment “Thou shalt not kill.” Yet, it was Augustine, one of the greatest Fathers of the Western Church, who provided Christianity with a thorough and resolute denunciation of suicide. Augustine confronted various counterexamples, addressing the issue multiple times in his writings, most systematically in the first book of the City of God. He was not concerned with suicides "motivated by cowardice, laziness, despair, contempt for life, or any other ignoble reasons". In fact, in the City of God, Augustine considers five possible justifications for suicide: to escape temporal troubles (e.g. torture, poverty, sickness, etc.); to avoid another’s sin (e.g., rape); out of despair for past sins (e.g., Judas); to attain a better life after death (e.g., the ‘philosopher’ Theombratus who took his own life to gain immortality after reading Plato); and, lastly, to avoid falling into sin out of pleasure or fear (e.g., consenting to initially unwanted physical pleasure during rape or offering sacrifice to idols out of fear). Yet, for Augustine, none of these justifications holds up under examination. 

When the Donatists were concerned, Augustine tackled the concept of “noble suicide,” as lauded in classical literature. He examined the renowned suicides of Romans, particularly Lucretia and Cato, emphasising that their actions should not serve as models for Christians. His reasoning likely drew not only from Christian teachings but also from Platonic ideas: the desire to live is essential for achieving true happiness, and endorsing suicide implies deeming certain lives worthless. Augustine also feared the “contagious effects” of suicides.

He scrutinised Biblical examples as well. Augustine absolved Samson, arguing that his death was not his primary aim. However, he acknowledged that not all actions by saints were commendable. Augustine also grappled with suicides driven by fidelity to God, like Samson and more notably, Razis. Was Razis’ death a suicide or martyrdom? Where does one draw the line? This debate was fervent among Christians during the third and fourth centuries amid persecutions: should a Christian flee from persecution, or actively seek martyrdom? The official Church stance encouraged fleeing from persecution and deemed it morally wrong to provoke them. Although many examples of voluntary martyrdom come from later literature rather than historical accounts, the readiness for martyrdom was a hallmark of the Donatists. The long rivalry with this group often erupted into bloody conflict where victims of these clashes were revered as martyrs. This association between the Donatists, particularly their radical faction the Circumcellions, and suicide may have been a significant triumph of Christian propaganda. Modern scholars note that since at least 390, suicide has been the "hard core" of schismatic resistance. If we took Augustine’s statements literally, one might imagine Africa’s cliffs teeming with Donatists, or Circumcellions, leaping en masse to gain the glory of martyrdom. Augustine cynically writes how the Donatists attempted to fly from these cliffs, but they could not fly, and so they died. As such, the Council of Carthage in 348 forbade the veneration of "those who throw themselves down".

However, apart from polemics, no confirmed event constitutes a clear, voluntary suicide for martyrdom. The definition of suicide is crucial here, particularly whether it includes dying while fleeing oppressors or willingly exposing oneself to persecution. Augustine certainly considered both as forms of suicide, which is why he condemned the Donatists so harshly. The only contemporary case he cites involves the Donatist presbyter Donatus, who, fleeing Christians, threw himself into a well but survived. Augustine also suggested Marculus was a suicide, noting that Roman law did not sanction executions by cliff falls. Nonetheless, Augustine writes that both Christian and Donatist synods forbade venerating suicides as martyrs.

But Augustine then petitions the Emperor to do something about the Donatists and to effectively "kill them with love". The Emperor was not overly willing to get involved but eventually sent a legion to attempt to deal with the matter. This is where our perception of Donatist suicides is undoubtedly coloured. In 419, the Romans laid siege to the basilica at Timgad in 419. During this event, Bishop Gaudentius threatened to set the basilica ablaze and die with everyone inside rather than surrender to the Roman army. This account is known only through Augustine, who heard it secondhand. Gaudentius might have believed the army would use force regardless. Excavations at Timgad have not confirmed significant destruction from the early fifth century. But Gaudentius’s threat prompted Augustine to write to Dulcitius, a Roman officer tasked with clearing the basilica. Augustine explained why suicide is wrong, addressing the Biblical argument Gaudentius apparently used: the example of Razis. Augustine did not resort to allegorical exegesis or challenge the facts. He stated plainly that Razis committed suicide, which, regardless of his motives, was wrong and an example to avoid:

“In [books of the Old Testament,] there are many actions of those persons who are praised by the truth of those writings, but they are either not suitable to the present time or were not correctly done even at that time. Such is the act that this Razis committed upon himself. ... These actions are often praised in the books of the pagans. But though this man was praised in the Books of the Maccabees, his action was reported, not praised, and it was set before our eyes, as if it were, for judgment rather than for imitation. We should certainly not judge it by our own judgment, which we could also have as human beings, but by the judgment of sober teaching that is clear even in the old books. This Razis was certainly far removed from those words where we read: ‘Accept whatever is done to you, and endure it in sorrow, and have patience in your humiliation’ (Ecclesiasticus 2:4). This man, then, was not wise in choosing death but impatient in bearing humiliation. ... These are great acts, but not good ones. After all, not everything that is great is good, since there are also great sins.” 

What is perhaps most interesting about this siege is how it paralleled an earlier time in Augustine's life in Milan when he himself threatened to bar the doors of his church with his mother, Monica, when the city was rife with revolt. And so he himself almost committed the act which he later scorned so greatly. Thus, partly provoked by his ecclesiastical adversaries, Augustine conclusively established the Church’s teaching on suicide, leaving no room for exceptions. His reflections were embraced by medieval authors, notably in the Decretum Gratiani. This collection of canonical and theological texts from the first millennium was compiled by Gratian, an Italian monk, around 1140. Gratian included a lengthy excerpt from Augustine’s The City of God, prefacing it with the succinct declaration, "But no one is allowed to kill himself by any authority of the law" This passage was placed among various texts concerning killing, highlighting a distinctive feature of medieval sources: they avoided the term "suicide," opting instead for "killing oneself". This choice underscored the immorality of suicide, aligning it with the divine commandment "Thou shalt not kill."

Understanding Augustine's position on suicide highlights the broader role that saints and Church Fathers play in medieval and Christian history. These figures were not only spiritual leaders but also influential thinkers whose writings and actions profoundly impacted the development of Christian doctrine and moral teaching. Saints like Augustine provided the intellectual and moral framework that guided the medieval Church's policies and responses to societal issues, including those as complex and contentious as suicide and martyrdom.

Augustine's rigorous and systematic condemnation of suicide, encapsulated in his writings, particularly the City of God, significantly shaped the Church's stance on the matter. By addressing various Biblical and classical counterexamples, he not only established a theological foundation but also countered the practices and beliefs of rival sects like the Donatists. Augustine's arguments extended beyond mere theological discourse, reflecting broader concerns about the philosophical implications of valuing life and the potential societal impact of suicide.

Moreover, saints' lives and teachings serve as crucial primary sources for historians studying the medieval period. Their writings offer insights into the theological debates, social conflicts, and cultural values of their times. For instance, Augustine’s detailed arguments against suicide and his critiques of the Donatists reveal much about the religious and political dynamics of fourth-century North Africa. By examining the works and legacies of saints, historians can better understand how Christian thought evolved and how it influenced medieval societies.

Thus, the importance of saints extends beyond their spiritual legacy; they are pivotal to comprehending the intricacies of medieval and Christian history. Their contributions provide a window into the past, illuminating the development of doctrines that have shaped Western thought for centuries.

Thank you for being a part of our community. We look forward to unravelling more historical wonders with you in the coming months. Until next time!

Warmest regards,

Luke