GREEN URBANISM: ECO-VILLAGES APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE NEIGHBORHOODS IN KENYA.

Overview

The 20th century witnessed the rapid urbanization of the world population, and this trend continued into the 21st century. According to the United Nations, nearly half the world population is living in urban areas. The percentage of urban dwellers grew from 29% in 1950 to 49% in 2005. By 2030, it’s estimated that 60% of the global population (5 Billions) will live in urban areas. Thus, population growth is anticipated to add even more strain on the world’s limited resources unless urban density and sustainability are increased. (UN-HABITAT, 2010)

On the same note, the century exhibited inefficient urban land use patterns that are of a major concern for sustainable development. Low residential densities and patches of single land use, all dominate in current urban form reality. Such trends lead to an increasing economic separation, deterioration of the environment, loss of open land, and the erosion of neighborhood architectural heritage (Williams et al, 2000). In consequence, the importance of sustainable land use designs cannot be underestimated (Barton, 1990).

As a result of the above planning demands, Williams et al (2000) described a list of building blocks for sustainable urban neighborhoods. These include neighborhood layout and size, housing type, open space distribution, mix of uses, and various growth alternatives like intensification, extensification, or decentralization. They also characterize a sustainable urban neighborhood form as the one that “enables the city to function within its natural and man-made carrying capacities, is user- friendly for its occupants, and promotes social equity”. (Williams et al, 2000).

In the light of containing sustainability challenges, sustainable development proponents subscribe that it should entail ‘the integration of economic, social and ecological/environmental objectives, to produce development that is socially desirable, economically viable and environmentally sustainable’ (Hens, 1996).

It’s alleged that mixed land use and high density have important role in achieving sustainable neighborhoods. Mixed-use or heterogeneous zoning allows compatible land uses to locate in close proximity to one another (Parker 1994). Mixed land use indicates the diversity of functional land uses such as residential, commercial, industrial and institutional.

Mixed land use and high density ensures that many services are within a reasonable distance, thus encouraging cycling or walking (Alberti 2000, Thorne and Filmer-Sankey 2003). In addition, mixed use of space and high density can renew life in many parts of the city and in turn enhance security in public spaces for disadvantaged groups (Elkin, McLaren, and Hillman 1991).

Therefore, the search for the ultimate sustainable cities and their districts perhaps now need to be re-oriented to the search for a number of sustainable urban forms which respond to a variety of existing settlements and contexts (Jerks et al. 1996).

Human settlements in Kenya:

In Kenya, most neighborhoods are mainly characterized by low-density single-use developments. These are exemplified by the similar building typologies that are both single family and single use. This is a lee way to land wastage as each unit needs its compound, garden, parking (sometimes) among other requirements. On the same note, single use buildings consume more land. This forces the separation of land uses yet some compatible ones could be included in one building such as retailing and residential.                                        

These concerns call for appropriate action in order to achieve sustainable designs for neighbourhoods. Therefore, there is need for formulation and adoption of appropriate neighborhood form/designs and policy interventions that could promote sustainability.

THE INTERVENTION( WAY FORWARD)

Eco-Villages: (Sustainable Human Settlements)

What’s an Eco-Village?

By definition, Eco-villages are:“human-scale, full-featured settlements in which human activities are harmlessly integrated into the natural world in a way that is supportive of healthy human development and can be successfully continued into the indefinite future.”

Human scale:

This description implies that the size of an Eco-village should be restricted to that of a community where all inhabitants can interact on a personal level. It should be on a scale where people know each other and where every member is able to take part in communal decisions and activities. An approximate minimum of 500 people could occupy an Eco-village. But under strict observance of the ecological principles, this number could be as high as 4,000 and can be enhanced through better designs of buildings and the distribution of other support facilities and services.

Full-featured settlement

People living in an Eco-village are afforded all the opportunities normally associated with living conditions. Thus provision should not only be made for the appropriate residential functions, but also for economic, social, leisure and commercial activities. The nature of these activities does not have to conform to standards associated with urban lifestyles, but can be in keeping with the ecological spirit of the settlement. In the current human settlement patterns of industrialized society, urban functions are separated and spatially spread out. In contrast to this, Eco-villages provide the opportunity to organize activities in a balanced manner on a human-oriented scale. Such an integration of functions allows an Eco-village to become a “comprehensible microcosm” of society.

Harmless integration of human activities into the natural world

This principle of Eco-villages brings into focus the importance of the natural environment. In accordance with sustainability principles, equality should exist between human beings and other forms of life. This in effect limits the domination of humans over nature. Many of the characteristics of Eco-villages are derived from a sensitive integration of humans into a natural system. One of the most important elements in this regard is the cyclical use of energy and materials. The linear approach of industrial society has created a culture where consumption is not linked to any form of responsibility of its consequences. This inefficiency in the use of scarce natural resources along with the growing accumulation of waste cannot be continued indefinitely. Eco-villages, as initiatives conscious of these problems, therefore concentrate on the use of renewable resources, the composting of organic wastes, the recycling of as much inorganic materials as possible and the avoidance of toxic and harmful substances.

Support of healthy human development

Healthy human development should involve a balanced and integrated development of all aspects of human life, namely the physical, emotional, mental and spiritual facets. It is important that such development should be aimed at the community as a whole. As such the principle influences the economic, governance and social issues of the community.

Successful continuance into the indefinite future

This principle indicates the relevance of accepted sustainability thinking to Eco-villages. Without the limitations enforced by sustainable practices, it would be entirely possible to create model Eco-villages, but these would still rely on ways of living that cannot be continued indefinitely.

The sustainability principle requires a commitment towards fairness and non-exploitation. This translates into respect for other parts of the world, human and non-human and all future life. A decreased dependence on capital imported from outside the Eco-village and greater self-sufficiency.

 Characteristics of Eco-Villages:

Eco-villages operate under the guidance of simple but effective principles all geared towards mutualism and sustainability. These include:

·        Adoption of local internal decision making bodies that really understand the plight of the people.

·        Application of local resources directly to local needs.

·        Participation and cooperation of the residents

·        Activity control by the locals themselves

·        Building local economies distinct from the national or even international spheres.

Elements of the Eco-Village

Eco-villages in the light of achieving sustainability, embrace designs that are enabling, sustainable designs. These designs are ecologically appropriate and building practice and could adopt any of the following ways: Green buildings, ecological designs or organic architecture. These designs aim at tackling the impacts of man’s activity on nature through environmentally-friendly construction practices. This design handles the conflict between development and ecological principles. The sustainable design entails building designs that are resourceful in energy use, robust in use and choice of materials.

The Rationale for Ecological Design:

Conventionally, an environmental crisis is a design problem. Through better neighborhood designs like the ecological ones, sustainability is achievable.

Components of the ecological design

a)     Green Buildings and Ecological Architecture: inexpensive to build, use and convert to different uses. Features like passive lighting and natural cooling techniques applied to minimize energy use. These buildings apply simple and sustainable principles like: reduced energy use by passive lighting, natural ventilations e.t.c; minimizing external pollution and environmental damage ( better waste managements, appropriate density to eradicate cases of extensions) and reduced embodied energy.

b)     The use of sustainable building designs is one of the latest trends in Eco-villages. This design known as the sustainable urban matrix model is socially, economically and ecologically responsive.

c)     Infrastructure and layout Design: these are designed and organized in an environmentally friendly way through a participatory planning process by the locals and interested stakeholders.

d)     Recycling waste (waste water, solid waste and sewage) the designs advocates for the waste is resource principle thus emphasizes the reuse and or recycling of waste where applicable. This thus yields organic energy and manure or consumed in appropriate means.

e)     Permacultutre design: this is an urban agricultural design that blends production with nature. Clearing of land to produce food is avoided hence forests and crops can o-exist. This can be practiced in the open spaces instead of paving them, between the developed and undeveloped areas and a possible replacement of gardens and flowers.

f)      Resource and energy consumption strategies: this advocates for the use of green energy and reduced fossil energy usage. This reduces the emissions of GHGs hence combating climate change.

g)     Adjusting metabolic inputs and outputs: this advocates for circular metabolism.

h)     Alternative modes of transportation: Eco villages apply ecologically transportation principle discourages the reliance on cars that are socially unequal for not all the age groups can drive, need space for parking and pollute both the air and sound, besides, they could cause accidents. Thus Eco-villages are designed to encourage walking and cycling by providing for their facilities (pathways and bike ways). Cars are restricted by using narrow streets, car-calming and limited parking spaces and car pooling.

Rationale for Sustainable Human Settlements

Global initiatives and policies:

·     Chapter 7 of Agenda 21, 'Promoting Sustainable Human Settlement Development' has been the main policy framework for sustainable development at an international level since the 1992 Rio Summit. This has since been updated and complemented by several additional policy developments. The UN Declaration on Cities and Other Human Settlements in the New Millennium, resolution S25.2 of 9 June 2001, for example, reaffirms that the Istanbul Declaration and the Habitat Agenda remain the basic framework for sustainable human settlement development into this century (UN General Assembly, 2001). Chances of observing this policy framework in achieving sustainable neighborhood are high.

The eight program areas as laid down by the convention are:

Ø Providing adequate shelter for all;

Ø Improving human settlement management.

Ø Providing sustainable land use planning and management.

Ø Promoting the integrated provision of environmental infrastructure: water, sanitation, drainage and solid waste management.

Ø Promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in human settlements.

Ø Promoting human settlements planning and management in disaster prone areas.

Ø Promoting sustainable construction industrial activities.

Ø Promoting human resource development and capacity building for human development.

·        The UN Habitat Agenda and Istanbul Declaration were a call to action, outlining two priorities in 1996, the need for sustainable human settlements and adequate shelter for all, and were signed by 171 UN member-states; Kenya included (United Nations Human Settlement Programme, 1996). The current state of housing calls for an urgent implementation of its provision. The population has been growing with time yet housing supply is not responsive to accommodate the growing household size and satisfy cultural dynamics. This could imply a demolition of the current limited units and redevelop putting in mind the both the current and projected demand for housing. The Agenda also highlighted the need for policy to be holistic, participatory and inclusive ( UNCHS, 1996). Decisions made in the public domain need to reflect the true aspirations of the very subjects. This agenda calls for a participatory approach to decision and policy making. Service provision decisions, development practices need to be well known by the locals and their inputs observed.

·        Millennium Development Goals

Before the introduction of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),Kenya was geared towards the achievement of the aspirations of the Kenya Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs). United Nations Millennium Development Goal 7 ( Ensuring environmental sustainability) aimed at integrating the principle of sustainable development into country policies and programs, reversing the loss o environmental resources; reducing ecological footprints among others. Localizing MDG goal 7 would help environmental ills likely to accrue due to the current illegal intensifications. Besides the loss of biodiversity, these intensifications have ecological footprint impacts. Thus, measures could be made restrain consumption of more open spaces through policy interventions. Even though the MDGs have been surpassed with time,these principles advocated for are timeless and may play a role towards sustainability if fully implemented.

Justification of the Eco-village Intervention:

The Eco-Village besides applying all the principles of the New Urbanism Neighborhood it goes a step ahead to prescribe factors such as participatory approach to planning and the use of local mechanisms to solve local challenges by the locals themselves.

Eco-Villages operate under the guidance of simple but effective principles all geared towards mutualism and sustainability. These include:

·        Adoption of local internal decision making bodies that really understand the plight of the people.

·        Application of local resources directly to local needs.

·        Participation and cooperation of the residents

·        Activity control by the locals themselves

·        Building local economies distinct from the national or even international spheres.

The ecological component of sustainability is well spelt out and applied in Eco-Villages indicating the level of commitment they have towards sustainability. It’s its observance of the ecological aspect that the neighborhood borrows its name “Eco-Village”.

Sustainable Urban Matrix Model

This is an apartment typology that’s envisaged as an integrated, coherent spatial neighborhood unit. It observes the precincts of sustainability through its unique modeling; in that they are neither so large that they cannot develop and sustain personal contact, nor so small that it suppresses difference and variation. Besides, they are multi-functional with each block having four stories, with both a ground level and a roof top.

a)Description of the housing typology proposed:

The SUM-Model encompasses most of the principles of Neo-Traditional developments ( New urbanism,urban village and Transit-Oriented –Development) if applied at the neighborhood scale,besides being economically, socially and ecologically responsive through design. In totality, SUM-Model provides a neighborhood with noble features described below:

• High quality spaces, internal and external
• Social interaction and vibrant neighborhood lifestyle
• Sense of, and attachment to, place.
• Rich mix of uses and activities
• Walkability and livability
• Cars in perspective and transport in focus

Sustainable and Eco-living for the future.

In the Eco-Village context, the above positives of the sustainable housing typology (SUM-Model) in several ways replicate the positives of an Eco-Village in totality.

b) Design attributes of the Housing typology        

A single residential apartment with the above features constitutes a single SUM-Model. this housing typology is applicable in multiples of four. When four units are built as a cell, they constitute a sustainable urban Matrix Group. a multiple of four SUM Group (16 apartments) form a Closed Neighborhood Group (CNG) which is the maximum possible cluster recommendable for residential neighborhood.

v Density;

·        The units are normally of four storeys, with both an entry level for non-residential but compatible uses like, retailing and other facilities and a roof-top which could form either a roof garden or a green roof for ecological significance.

·        The units are of multi-family use to minimize the need for private land needs for each household.

v Mix use: the buildings shall combine both residential and non-residential but compatible functions such as retailing,salons,cyber cafés, hotels, chemists among others.

Sample Dimensions of the Units and SUM-GROUP

Source: author’s construct,2015.

A sample of a single sustainable urban matrix model

  Sustainable urban matrix Group (4-SUM)- an individual cluster.

Source: author,2015

  SUM Group Description

Each Sustainable Urban Matrix Group shall face the direction of an open space meant    for the recreational functions of its inhabitants.Across-like pedestrian path       shall be   used for mobility within the SUM group and foe linking with other units. The circular    design enhances a sense of more inclusiveness and belonging to the residents of the  cluster the entrances to the buildings shall be on the longer side nearing the          circular open space in the center.

i)     The cluster center: a designed mini-recreational circle for the locals of a cluster. Its aim is to promote social cohesion and interaction at the cluster level in each of the clusters in the neighborhood. It serves as a recreational point for the immediate population, near to dwelling units and secure since there exists almost a one to one awareness among members of the cluster.

 The Circular Mini-Recreational Open Space for the cluster residents.

ii)                Roof Top:

Roof tops are of two typologies : intensive/traditional roof gardens which have    structures that can accommodate deep soil cover needed for gardens and need more structural reinforcement. Are a bit expensive and need high management. The    other typology is the extensive or ecological roof top. This type involves coverage      of the entire rooftop with a relatively thin layer of soil and vegetation. It needs    little maintenance and few inputs needed.

This approach thus stipulates the units will have ecological rooftops          due     to their low costs of installation and immense benefits as described below:

The units will not have covered roof tops. Instead they will employ eco-roofs                 which   have more advantages than the conventional roof typologies. These                include:

Protection of the UV Rays ,ability to extend the life of a roof,ability to cool the   neighborhood temperature and curb cases of heat islands,carbon dioxide   sequestration, the control of storm water runoff and provision of habitat for         plants and birds.

The short term costs for their installation are high but the long term significance are       more attractive and more beneficial. Roof tops offer a good visual landscape and          quality neighborhood.

Ecological features: the buildings will be designed in sch a way that they benefit from   passive day lighting by use of solar architecture and solarization. Thus, they will be    oriented in the southern direction to enjoy all day long natural light via wide      windows. Fittings/appliances that are energy efficient are recommended, even those    using  solar and organic energy.

The roof top for an Eco-roof as described above.

iii)              Building materials

Green building principles prescribe a set of building materials to be used if sustainability is anything to be achieved. The following principles could be localized and applied in the construction of the units during the reconstruction process:

Green Building Material Requirements

1.         Products made from recycled or salvaged materials such as the debris from the units       to be demolished could be recycled for use since they contain low embodied energy.

2.         Products made from materials that are renewable in the short term (10 years or less)

3.        Products that do not contain toxics or environmentally damaging materials

4.         Products (or methods) that reduce the material volume required

5.        Products that reduce environmental impacts during the manufacturing process,            construction,renovation or demolition

6.        Products (or methods) that are energy efficient or that reduce the heating and cooling       loads on a building

7.         Products that are reusable or recyclable

8.         Local products rather than products from far away ( from within the bioregion if not       within the site)

 BENEFITS OF ECO-VILLAGES

 The benefits of Eco-Villages can be categorized among the actors /subjects in question as below:

·        The public( local authorities and society)

·        Private business and planners

·        The residents (as individuals)

·        The natural environment.

On the same note, these benefits could be categorized as those on: livability and costs.

a)     Benefits related to livability

Community livability refers to the environment and social equity of an area as perceived by the residents, employees, customers and visitors.

·        Eco-Villages offer reduced air and noise pollution and lower risk f injuries by traffic accidents.

·        More space for people in an attractive,quite,safe and healthy environment ( car-free streets and squares, a great variety of open spaces), promoting slower paced, more relaxed,healthier and thus more sustainable lifestyles.

·        Promoting personal interaction with neighbors, as well as resulting in the presence of more people in the public areas during the day and night hence creating a greater sense of community and possibly resulting in lower crime rates.

·        Living in close proximity to various facilities in mixed-use neighbourhoods implies shorter routes to public transport stops,to jobs, or to school, for shopping,recreation e.t.c. thus saving time and energy.

·        Varied green areas, integrated into compact settlements as well as surrounding them are easily accessible and solar architecture provides convenient temperatures and good levels of daylight for indoor comfort.

·        A balanced social mix and social services and facilities for all groups of residents foster their well-being.

These benefits are for all the residents. However, there exist a certain group that gains most. For instance:

·        Privileges for non-drivers ( who are disadvantaged by car-dependent mobility and land use patterns), increasing their mobility and accessibility options.

·        An integrated path way system free of private cars and barriers but with sufficient social control combined with short distances,creates an attractive and safe environment for children ( to play safely outdoors and travel on their own) as well as for the mobility of senior citizens and the handicapped.

 Other benefits include the following:

·        Promotion of individual health: the building materials include fewer harmful substances and better air quality reduces the risk of exhaust-related respiratory ailments,while more walking or cycling is an effective way of increasing physical activity among otherwise sedentary people.

At the local authority level,say municipality,or city council, these benefits could be strategized for attracting potential investors and even promote Eco-tourism. They are significant marketing factors. In addition the following outcomes are possible:

·        Livable urban patterns,including high-quality public spaces, and more involvement of the inhabitants in their own design increase people’s identification with the neighborhood.

·        The standard of accommodation in adjacent land uses is increased due to the level of servicing in the Eco-Village.

·        Eco-Village patterns are also favorable for meeting the challenges of demographic and socioeconomic changes and challenges.

 b)    Benefits related to costs

In most categories, the cost of establishing an Eco-village is lower than in conventional neighborhood development:

Eco-Villages have lower investment costs

·        For infrastructure (streets,sewers,water pipes e.t.c) because of compact development

·        For parking facilities due to reduced car dependence and thus a lower level of motorization.

Eco-Villages also feature lower operating and usage costs:

·        For heating and lighting,because of more compact building structures as well as due to solar gains and high insulation.

·        For transportation due to minimized trip lengths ( short distances) and the resulting higher share of walking and cycling trips.

Eco-Villages create lower life-cycle costs due to:

·        The creation of energy-intensive buildings and generation of energy from renewable resources e.g. bio-gas from organic waste ( this can mean higher investment but then results in significantly lower operating costs)

·        The use of more durable materials (which may also increase up-front investment costs but require less maintenance and or repair or replacement.

·        The use of materials that are re-usable or recyclable.

 For the local authorities, additional inhabitants and businesses increase the tax base and more compact developments make more efficient use of land in this regard.

 Businesses are bound to benefit form lower household spending on mobility as the money saved can be spent on purchases. Also providing livable public spaces means local retail trade can benefit from resulting increasing sales due to increased pedestrian traffic.

For the developers the risk of balanced Mixed-Use projects is lower than in mono-functional residential developments. Better utilization of land area ( more square meters for rent) due to higher density allows lower prices for space, which enhances attractiveness to a larger group of (potential ) residents and businesses.

c)     Benefits for the (natural) environment.

 The natural environment benefits from Eco-vilages are in two major elements of sustainability- the rates of resource use and the rate of emissions.

·        Less land demand and scaled-up area due to high density form (avoiding sprawl) allows the preservation of self-contained undisturbed natural green areas and pemaculture land- available both for human use and also as habitat for other living organisms and for natural processes ( water cycle and carbon-fixing in green plants)

·        Saving energy due to minimized and more efficient motorized pblic transport usage as well as solar architecture and low energy housing results in decreased consumption of fossil fuels.

·        This contributes to climate change mitigation/protection through reduced carbon footprints and GHGs emissions.

 Expected outputs and indicators of Eco-village development

CONCLUSIONS:

The Rio Earth Summit of 1992 ignited the desire for sustainable development. Ever     since, the momentum towards this noble practice has been unwavering and has gained more publicity with time. Urban development trends of the 20th century, with respect to urban neighborhoods paid little attention to the precincts of sustainability which resulted to the       present single-land use developments, low density and land use intensity, non-observance of       the socio-economic status of the people. The key interest was predominantly accommodation.

The latest emergence of Eco-Villages brought a whole new paradigm in the planning profession with respect to establishing sustainable neighbourhoods whether green field or brownfield developments, rural or urban. Eco-villages are a better option, probably to achieving sustainability in the 21st century development trends. The observance of not only the social, economic and ecological factors of sustainability but also acknowledging that natural resources are finite thus promote re-use, recycling and utilization of locally available materials for development, use of locally          available mechanisms to problem solving, valuing and cherishing the contribution of the locals in development by emphasizing a participatory approach to planning.

A 'sustainable city' is designed so as to enable all its citizens to meet their own needs and to enhance their well-being without damaging the natural world or endangering the living conditions of other people, now or in the future. (Girardet 1999). This is clearly a greener, and more inclusive approach to sustainability than exists within the current policies of most countries. It looks to the environment and to economics and to social relationships and social justice. This is what Eco-villages endeavor to achieve.