Gypsies, Tramps, and Thieves - The Eras and Evolution of Medicine
Modern medicine is often accursed and accused of being ultra-materialistic. This materialism or critique of the pervading paradigm is problematic if the implication states medicine should retreat from the therapeutic breakthroughs of the scientific era (Leder and Krucoff, 2011, p.859). Descartes’ grossly mechanistic view of life (Mayr, 1961, p.1501) ushered in a dichotomous vision of humanity and reduced mind and body into treatable pieces (Abreu, Fradique, &Lucas, 2010). This may also possibly be a reflection of the spiritual void in our society and points to a larger systemic societal flaw; bringing the question, is the medical system also a mirror of our country’s health? Spirituality and nonlocality are the scaffolding of change in our next phase of medical care (Benson, et al., 2011), yet there are many who feel that spirituality has no place in the medical paradigm (Block, 2008).
Larry Dossey (1999) has outlined different eras of medicine and how medicine is moving toward a point where physicians and patients will interact on a more nonlocal level. Lee (2010) proposed, the medical system is too fragmented to absorb the accelerating levels of information, and this acceleration is worsening the paradigm at large. As a practicing physician, this is not my understanding of our current system. The current system operates under a sub-system in which the patient is a passive participant in the healing process (Brody, Miller, Smith, Lerman, Smith & Caputo, 1989). In this paternalistic system where the doctor dictates and the patient follows there is no real possession of wellness on the part of the patient. Dossey would agree with this claim as his first two eras (systems) of medicine are both local, in the sense that the interaction between doctor and patient is on a simplistic and concrete level. I believe we are moving into a dynamic where this type of treatment is no longer working in our society as it did in the nineteenth century. As our society moves into a more multicultural and global system it follows that healing would gravitate in a similar direction. Laszlo (1993) stated the evolutionary tract of contemporary societies must sooner or later bifurcate (p. x), and because of this, physicians cannot assume that a simple blood pressure medication will heal a patient if there is a cause for the hypertension from outside of the patient. In this paper I will look at the different eras of medicine as described by Dossey and will briefly explore them as evolving systems, and how they evolved within the systems acting upon them.
Era I – Mechanical Medicine.
“Era I can be called materialistic, mechanistic, or physicalistic medicine” (Dossey, 1999, p. 18). The basic foundation of this era is a reflection of the discovery of the physical laws of nature. Isaac Newton (1643-1727) destroyed the heliocentric belief system at the time and promoted the scientific postulate that our universe is piece of a larger system and gravitation and its causal effects are the basis of why things work. Prior to Newton, medical systems were based on the beliefs of humoralism (Afkhami, 2004) and the belief our bodies were controlled by substances rather than outside influence. Newton’s discoveries showed the sun was not the center of our universe; it followed then the body was then not the center of the healing process. Era I medicine, as a system, took Newtonian law and mirrored it into a healing process.
The Era I system was causal, deterministic and is describable by space and time; the mind was not a factor and was considered the result of brain mechanisms (Dossey, 1999, p. 19). William James (2002, p. viii) highlighted the physicalistic nature of Era I when he stated:
“Medical materialism finished up Saint Paul by calling his vision on the road to Damascus as a discharging lesion of the occipital cortex, he being an epileptic. It snuffs out Saint Teresa as an hysteric, and Saint Francis as a hereditary degenerate”
In a time when society was suffering the effects of diphtheria and cholera there was an understanding that this was not a penance from an angry God, but was something treatable with antibiotics and medicine (McKeown & Record, 1962). This was the beginning of many medical discoveries, but this disempowered patients (Horsfall, 1997). This lack of personal control for patients started the process of medical paternalism.
Era I and the assassination of a president. We can look at specific points in history to see the effects of this Era I medicine. On July 2, 1881 President James Garfield was shot twice by a would-be assassin. It was not until September 19, 1881 that President Garfield succumbed, but not because of the bullets. According to some experts, Garfield did not die from his wounds but because of the medical care he received (Schaffer, 2006). Medicine was deep into this new paradigm of mechanistic medicine, but there was something about Garfield’s wounds they could not cure. While physicians attempted to probe his wounds to find the bullet, they did so without sterilized instruments. Joesph Lister had developed sterile technique in the 1860s but this approach was not yet widely accepted. It was because of this septic technique that Garfield eventually died from exposure to one of the greatest health risks of the day – the medical profession (Polkinghorne, 1989).
The United States had recently lived through the Civil War (1861-1865), the assassination of Presidents Lincoln, and the attempted assassination of Garfield. The Civil War marked a point in our social evolution where we looked at all humans as beings, and medicine was moving with this transition away from humoral disease into organ specific healing. It was not a time of looking at the emotional and spiritual aspects of the person, but the physicality.
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) and his work with plants demonstrated the allelic transference of genes and the possibility of disease moving to a microscopic level. This revolutionary thought was met with distrust, and some accused Mendel of scientific malpractice. Medicine was looking to make sense of the human body just as science was looking to categorize the outside world. The scientific community had been attempting a classification system for the last century. It was not until 1843 that Leopold Gmelin proposed a classification system for elements as gases, metals, and nonmetals. This eventually became the periodic table as science began to reduce humanity into separate elements and medicine separated humans into organ systems.
With the attempted assassination of Garfield physicians probed his wounds with septic technique even though sterile procedures were available (Lister, 1867). This was a time where sterile technique was not chosen as it was considered a new procedure. During medical transitions there are individuals who have one foot in the new system and one in the old. There are also individuals who move forward and begin to ask questions of the new system.
One of these healers was Florence Nightingale (1820-1910). Nightingale reformed nursing and medical care by starting a revolution that established a theoretical framework for nursing education culminating in the creation of The Nightingale School of Nursing at St Thomas’s Hospital in 1860 (Dossey, 2000, p.209). Nightingale claimed the purpose of her nursing school was to train nurses who were respectful of both the art and the science of nursing (p. 300). In establishing medicine and nursing care as an art and looking at the divinity of humanity, Nightingale was utilizing the technical aspects of Era I medicine. She also looked past the Cartesian separation of mind and body towards an emerging model of medicine
Era I and Human Activity Systems. A human activity systems analysis of allopathic medicine demonstrates its evolution as a response to various challenges. A major challenge for mechanical medicine is errors in hospital pharmacies (Kanse, Van der Shaaf, Vrijland, & Van Mierlo, 2007). The process evaluation considered how the errors were detected and what influenced individuals reporting of these errors. Did employees have a fear of reporting a hospital error or was there a process in place so that this type of report was encouraged among staff? Confidential reports were put into place and analysis was performed for intervention. The hospital systems analysis discovered the reporting processes needed reinforcement and that additional checks should be placed. An example of additional checks in many hospitals is the addition of two nurses wasting narcotic medications and signing out of narcotic medications. The point of systems analysis in the allopathic hospital has the end result of avoiding negative consequences and administration of a recovery plan if negative events occur (Stotts and Horng-Shiuann, 2007).
Era II – Mind-Body Medicine.
As with the introduction of Era I medicine, the movement towards Era II was ushered in through war. If Era I was born from the ashes of the Civil War, Era II medicine developed from the ruins of World War II. Mechanical medicine, its wonders and limitations, was born from a local systemic war, while Era II and its expansion developed after a war involving the global community.
George Engle (1977) was one of the first to describe the effect of psyche on the body. This psychosomatic discovery was a move into the theory of mind-body and was not congruent with the Cartesian model. Biopsychosocial theory is seen in many ancient writings and shamans have been using this method to heal for hundreds of years. In our society it may have been a direct result of the psychological effects of World War I and II. World War I lent impetus to the idea that the mind could dramatically affect the body when thousands of soldiers returned home with “shell shock” (Dossey, 1999, p. 22). These types of progressive systems are more evolved and therefore are able to incorporate the positive aspects of its predecessor. Nonetheless, this would not be true in the opposite direction.
As our world was recovering from the devastations of two world wars there was a turning inward and this was reflected on the healing paradigm. Within the context of Era II medicine the healing system evolved to include therapies like counseling, biofeedback, psychoneuroimmunology, hypnosis and imagery. In this new medical system, Era II, the human being can be considered a holon (Koestler, 1990.). Thus, one can see the manner where the physician and patient form a dyad not a paternalistic group and patients and physicians accept “joint responsibility in health care decisions” (Arney & Bergen, 1985, p.92).
Weakness in this model is in the patient’s potential inability to recognize this control and the physician’s reluctance to relinquish it. This individual expression or participation in the model is a limitation of the Era II system. This aspect of Era II limitation is what opens to the further expansion of the Era III system (Dossey, 1999, p. 24).
Era II medicine and the global community. Mind-body medicine united the mind with body and developed from a global community also looking for unification after a grand and destructive war. As a charter, the United Nations was developed in 1945 on the heels of World War II. Its charter was to develop cooperation and unification between nations regarding law, security, economics, social progress, and human rights. This global collaborative was also seen in 1949 by the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). As with Mind-Body medicine and healing of the individual through personal practices that promote a unity between the personal mind and body, the global community was healing. Scientific systems were also looking inward and progressing towards an unseen space. The development of radar, television, solar, microwaves, nuclear physics, and quantum theory showed science as a parallel system developing on the same invisible landscape as mind-body healing. Science, like medicine, geography, and archaeology were going through a quantitative revolution described as a radical transformation of spirit and purpose (Burton, 1963). This revolution was also changing the scope of literature and art with the rise of existentialism and Dadaism; the belief in humanity. A revolution was occurring on a cultural level to express the meaningless aspects of scientific reductionism and it gave rise to the surrealism and belief in more than science. This was also characterized as medical academics argued over a biopsychosocial model in the 1960s. As a transition point it was necessary for the physicalistic model to combat this change while criticisms claimed habits of the mind may be missing the link between a biopsychosocial intent and clinical reality (Epstein & Borrell-Carrio, 2005).
Finally, mind-body health brought forth a systematic means of changing medical practice by opening healing to the concept of placebo. Moreman and Jonas (2002) recently defined placebo as “the therapeutic effect produced by things objectively without specific activity for the condition being treated” (p.471). Early in Era I medicine the materialists refuted placebo which they felt as substantially lying to patients (Newman, 2008). Era II medicine utilized the placebo response or what Moreman and Jonas (2002) refer to as the Meaning Response (p. 472).
Era II and Human Activity Systems. With the framework of allopathic and osteopathic medicine established, the mind-body theorists made epistemic assumptions from allopathic instruction and designed different learning environments (Jonassen & Roherer-Murphy, (1999). Mind-Body and integrative medicine began as a vision for a new kind of health care (Maizes, Rakel & Niemiec, 2009) and in order for survival it had to change in a way adding value to itself (Kuhn, 1972). Integrative medicine utilization among cancer patients is increasing (Rosenthal & Dean-Clower, 2005) and it faces issues as a legitimate process based on its goal directed actions. These issues and challenges come from the medical reductionists of the previous era, but the challenge is necessary for Era II to become an established respected practice. One such integrative clinic embedded within an Era I hospital is Inspiritas, located within the START Center for Cancer Care in San Antonio, TX. The purpose of this center was to bring integrative care to cancer patients in the San Antonio community (Kemmy, personal communication 2012). Relationships were forged between medical and surgical oncologists and integrative medicine practitioners to build relationships for care. Virginia Kemmy, RN, a student of the Saybrook program of Mind-Body Medicine was asked to design, head, and maintain the center. Her personal communication describes a cohort of patients already utilizing integrative medicine with oncologists who are forming multi-disciplinary expertise between conventional and alternative therapies (Rosenthal & Dean-Clower, 2005). The center struggles with fiscal issues based on usage as physicians struggle to refer their patients for treatments they deem unproven. However, the components of care (nurses, techs, doctors, patients, alternative practitioners) have meetings devising therapeutic treatments for patients thus promoting integration within the system. The external benefits bring a social aspect to medical care, the patients and surrounding community, which may decrease functional decline of the individual (Bernabei et al, 1998).
Era III – Nonlocal Medicine.
As we explore the expansion of mind-body medicine and patient autonomy, our health care system continues to evolve. This new expansion of the system is conceptualizing healing and distant intentionality as the “intentions of one person influencing the health of a distant person” (Schlitz et al, 2003, p.A31). Incorporation of the previous two eras allows physicians to treat patients with antibiotics or perform x-rays, and it also gives them the ability to send a patient for counseling or complementary therapies. No other study demonstrates Era III medicine better than Achterberg et al. (2005). This study demonstrated patients in a functional MRI machine had activation of the anterior and middle cingulated, precuneus, and frontal areas of the brain while an individual categorized as a healer was sending treatment towards the patient. The patient was unaware of the random healings and the healer was also not able to visualize the patient.
One difficulty with this model is a lack of conformation to time and space of previous models. Time and space are the physical tenets on which allopathic medicine (Era I) was founded and this makes results more difficult for the medical materialists to understand; allopathic physicians prescribe a medicine for seven days creating a distinctive time period and expected result. Dossey (1999) has put forth three characteristics of nonlocal healing (1) it is unmediated (without intervention) (2) it is unmitigated (does not diminish over time and (3) It is immediate (effects are without delay). These three factors point to a transpersonal system of healing. The prepersonal scientists find it difficult to comprehend this system through a positivist framework.
As we look at nonlocal healing and the transpersonal possibility of medicine or the medical materialists and their ability to cure infections or treat disease it is important not to commit the Pre/Trans Fallacy as described by Wilber (1983). In any developmental system evolution, like medicine, developmental growth will occur from the Era I through the Era III as described earlier. While there is a developmental difference, to the unaided eye it may be apparent that these systems are one in the same, or that one system may be superior to the other. The pre-trans fallacy occurs when one elevates medical materialism and physicalistic medicine to the ultimate healing paradigm. It can also be committed if one views the Era III or nonlocal method as the only type of medical healing. I believe this fallacy is committed more frequently when communication is poor between practitioners of different Eras.
As seen with previous Eras of medicine a significant transition was also occurring in mainstream local and global society. To usher in Era III medicine we see the environmental revolution and the Digital Age. The existence of Medical Eras does not mean they exist individually. We continue to use mechanical medicine alongside mind-body medicine. Similarly, the environmental revolution and the Green Movement has been ongoing for the past few decades as has the digital revolution which can be seen by the explosion of cellular phone usage in the last ten years expanding from millions to billions of users. World conflicts continue to arise as we move from the terrorist attacks of 9-11-2001, to the revolutions in Arab countries over the past two summers. In medicine we see diseases changing from organ specific to those being spread nonlocally and unseen. Severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (SARS) and Influenza H1N1 brought about an unseen pathogen between individuals expressing the transition to communication in the unseen void between hosts. Era I medicine also pushes forward in this timeframe with the advent of a new vaccine for H1N1 and cervical cancer and the debate between Eras continues (Frazer, 2007). Finally, as with Era III medicine, social media moved towards a nonlocal communication with the advent of Facebook and Twitter where communication is based more in the nonlocal space of the internet and less with face-to-face communication.
Era III, nonlocality and human activity systems. The dilemmas faced in medicine are variations of the “nature of human beings and his or her relation to a larger scheme of things” (Wilber, 2005, p.xx). Challenges for Era III medicine are the reality, validity, and efficacy of such therapies. Process and goal oriented systems analysis look at this nonlocal or transpersonal healing with an eye towards evidence. Braud (2005) produced numerous studies demonstrating “objectively measurable influences on distant biological and physical systems” (p.272). By demonstrating objectively measurable results the Era III paradigm is able to speak the language of Era I medicine. In order for nonlocal treatments (prayers, intentions, transpersonal imagery) to be utilized in Era I hospitals there will need to be processes and procedures based on results. Patients may decide to utilize nonlocal forms of healing even if studies prove there is no positive outcome. Proponents of nonlocal healing continue to study the phenomena and for this to transcend any other system it will rely on collaboration between professionals and patients, or as Gordon (2005) describes:
Collaboration will be required between the open-minded professionals in all the healing traditions, philanthropists who are willing to underwrite and implement the recommendations and study their consequences, and elected officials who are courageous enough to make sure the government fulfills its mandate to meet the health care and needs of all people (p.498).
Thinking in the evolution of medical systems.
One argument in repairing the medical system is tort reform or governmental oversight as seen in recent congressional debates. A system is more than a sum of its parts (Meadows, 2008, p. 188), and the medical system is a dynamic display of interconnections between patients, physicians, offices, hospitals, insurance companies, advocacy groups bound by ethical codes and basic survival. It is my belief the influence to change the medical paradigm is not focusing from the top down as seen in healthcare reform, but from the ground up. There must be a change in the fundamental stock of the individual who then can carry into the healing paradigm between physician and patient. In simple systems as the level of inflow exceeds the outflow there is a rise in stock. For the individual this rise would be a spiritual and physical wellness. Currently, with stress, poor diet, poor communication, rising healthcare costs, and medical materialism the outflow of energy is exceeding the inflow and thus we see a societal system with poor health and a medical system in shambles. The medical system will evolve as a reflection of societal evolution. As we evolved from agrarian to industrial, so shall we evolve from a materialistic to a transpersonal model of healing between the patient and physician?
Epistemologically we are entering another Era of medicine. We are currently grounded in evidence-based medicine but there is a debate on the epistemology and theory of evidence and inference; causation and correlation (Ashcroft, 2004). With the Eras of Medicine the purpose of these transitions is less a stated need and more of a parallel evolution consistent with local and global progression. The processes and functions of these new medical systems bring together participants from different Eras who are cordially investigating the process even though scientific evidence may be lacking (Dossey, 2008). Relationships are also evolving within the medical Eras as individuals discuss evidence and shape the case of each evolving system. The key to these relationships is understanding the language of each paradigm (Dossey, 2002). This communication process in an open environment may make participants of the old paradigm feel defensive and participants of the new model constrained. The point is new medical paradigms and Eras of Medicine do not evolve in a cultural vacuum and progress under the influence of other societal paradigms. This evolution is similar to an ecocline or gradient where different eras occupy zones according to the special needs of the surrounding environment (Planka, 2000).
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