Nano: Types, classification, and applications

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Introduction

There is a need in particular for an overview of types, classification, and characterization of nanomaterials (NMs). These nanostructured materials display unique features such as excellent physical and chemical stability, lower density, and high surface area. These great features of NMs make them excellent candidates for the design and preparation of new functional materials. According to their dimensionality, NMs include NPs, nanotubes, and nanofilms. NMs can be made of single elements such as metals or carbon, or multiple elements such as

metal oxides or composites. The physicochemical properties of a material in nano form can be very different from its bulk counterpart. This chapter covers different categories of NM their general classification, applications, their sources, dimensionality, shape, and composition as relevant to their use in the medical, agriculture, and food and food industry.

Key points

• As per the National Academies, a distinction is made between three forms of nanoscale particles [usually shortened in the literature as “NPs” (nanoparticles) or

“NMs”]—engineered, incidental, and natural.

• Natural NPs exist in the environment (mineral composites, magnetotactic bacteria, lunar dust, volcanic dust, etc.).

• Incidental NPs, also known as anthropogenic or waste particles, occur because of man-made industrial processes (welding fumes, coal combustion, diesel exhaust, etc.).

• Both incidental and natural NPs may have regular or irregular shapes.

• Usually, engineered NPs have regular shapes, like rings, spheres, tubes, etc.

• To produce engineered NMs, a large sample is subjected to milling or lithographic etching to achieve nanosized particles (a method usually known as “top-down”).

• Alternatively, smaller subunits are assembled through chemical synthesis or crystal growth to grow NPs of the required configuration and size (a method often known as “bottom-up”).

• Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have exclusive properties that would make them appropriate in the medical field such as their ability to adsorb pathogenic microorganisms and conduct heat. have great potential in biomedical applications, especially for drug delivery.

• Human health risks may vary depending on the production method and the source of the NM.

Overview

NPs can be classified into different types according to the size, morphology, physical and chemical properties. Some of them are carbon-based NPs, ceramic NPs, metal NPs, semiconductor NPs, polymeric NPs, and lipid-based NPs. NMs have been divided into two major groups according to their morphology and structures such as consolidated (or amalgamated) materials and nanodispersions. Among the types of NMs, in particular consolidated NMs, they have been classified into several groups. These materials have structural components smaller than 1 Âμm in at least one dimension. NPs are particles with at least one dimension smaller than 1 micron and potentially as small as atomic and molecular length scales (B0.2 nm). Some classifications distinguish between organic and inorganic NPs; the first group includes dendrimers, liposomes, and polymeric NPs, while the latter includes metals, fullerenes, quantum dots (QDs), and gold NPs. NMs described in the literature usually include different molecular structures such as inorganic NPs [NPs of gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum, titanium (Ti), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe)], QDs (semiconductor nanocrystals), supermagnetic NPs (magnetite), carbon NPs (nanotubes and fullerenes), polymer NPs (polylactic and polyglycolic acids, polycapralactone), dendrimers (polyamidoamine, lysine), polymeric micelles (carriers of hydrophobic drugs), liposomes, plant material NPs, etc. A nanocomposite is a solid containing at least one physically or chemically distinct region, or collection of regions, having at least one dimension in the nanoscale. A nanofoam has a liquid or solid matrix, filled with a gaseous phase, where one of the two phases has dimensions on the nanoscale. A nanoporous material is a solid material containing nanopores, cavities with dimensions on the nanoscale. A nanocrystalline material has a significant fraction of crystal grains in the nanoscale.

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Further reading

Gupta, P.K., 2020a. Toxic effects of nanoparticles, Toxicology: Resource for Self Study Questions, Second (ed.) Kinder Direct Publications (Chapter 15).

Gupta, P.K., 2020b. Toxicology of nanoparticles, Problem Solving Questions in Toxicology - A Study Guide for the Board and other Examinations, First ed Springer Nature Switzerland, Chapter 14.

Gupta, P.K., 2020c. Toxic effects of nanoparticles, Brain Storming Questions in Toxicology, First ed Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. CRC Press, pp. 297-300.

Gupta, PK 2022. Fundamentals of Nanotoxicology: Concepts and Applications, 1st Edition - April 27, 2022 Paperback ISBN: 9780323903998 / 9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 0 3 9 9 - 8 eBook ISBN: 9780323906906

Jeevanandam, J., Barhoum, A., Chan, Y.S., Dufresne, A., Danquah, M.K., 2018. Review on nanoparticles and nanostructured materials: history, sources, toxicity and regulations. Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 9, PMC. Available from: 5905289.

Kumar, R., Lal, S., 2014. Synthesis of organic nanoparticles and their applications in drug delivery and food nanotechnology: a review. Nanomater. Mol. Nanotechnol. 3, 4. Available from: https://doi.org/10.4172/2324-8777.1000150. 2014.

Sudha, P.N., Sangeetha, K., Vijayalakshmi, K., Barhoum, A., 2018. Nanomaterial history, classification, unique properties, production and market. In: Salam, A., Makhlouf, H., Barhoum, A. (Eds.), Emerging Applications of Nanoparticles and Architecture Nanostructures. Current Prospects and Future Trends-Micro and Nano Technologies, First (ed.) Elsevier, pp. 341-384.

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