Solid Lipid Nanocarriers Drug Delivery System for Breast Cancer

Abstract：

In this review, Solid Lipid Nanocarriers (SLNs) were agreed to be used in the treatment of breast cancer, which is a widespread prevalent disease, accounting for 12.5% of annual cancer cases globally. While considerable progress has been made in the treatment of breast cancer using a combined therapeutic strategy (such as surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy and endocrine therapy), there are still issues, such as systemic toxicity, drug resistance, and adverse effects. SLNs are a novel approach to cancer treatment because of their unique physicochemical properties. Its ability to encapsulate hydrophilic as well as hydrophobic drugs promises controlled release and targeted drug delivery. This multifunctional approach improves the solubility of drugs and their bioavailability and reduces systemic side effects.

Moreover, their biocompatibility and modifiability support their potential for use in cancer therapy. Pharmacists face challenges while maintaining stability, effective drug loading and timed delivery. The combining of SLNs with new therapies like gene therapy and immunotherapy holds promise for giving more effective comprehensive therapies in treating breast cancer. This review concludes that SLNs represent a significant advancement in breast cancer treatment, offering more accurate drug delivery and fewer side effects; they also open the way for overcoming drug resistance. Continued research on SLNs is poised to revolutionize the therapy of breast cancer, offering new hope for cancer patients. Ongoing research will continue to improve the effectiveness of SLNs in breast cancer therapy. Future advances include designing SLNs that specifically target breast cancer cells with few side effects and, at the same time, combining them with other treatment methods for more powerful and comprehensive treatments. Advances in nanotechnology and personalized medicine will enable the tailoring of SLNs to specific breast cancer subtypes, making therapy more targeted and effective. Clinical trials and further developments in new types of treatment are vital steps towards realizing the full potential of SLNs in breast cancer treatment.

Introduction

In healthy tissues, cells grow, divide and die regularly, and cancer is a disease in which cells grow abnormally, disturbing normal cell regulation. Cancer is caused by mutations triggered by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals or other harmful substances. It can be caused by genetic inheritance. In breast cancer, there is aberrant cell growth that leads to tumour formation and if they are left unchecked, they spread in the body and can cause serious complications and death (Cooper, 2000). 

Statistics show that in 2020, approximately 2.3 million women were diagnosed with breast cancer worldwide, and WHO estimated that breast cancer caused 685,000 deaths globally in the same year in 2020. Breast cancer is known as one of the world’s most prevalent cancer types because 7.8 million women were diagnosed in the past five years as of 2020, and now it has become a global issue. It can affect women at any age after puberty, with increasing rates later in life. Men are also susceptible to developing breast cancer, as approximately 0.5–1% of breast cancers occur in men. Every 14 seconds, a woman is diagnosed with breast cancer somewhere in the world (Breast Cancer Research Foundation, 2023). In its 2024 report, the National Breast Cancer Coalition (NBCC) reported that last year, about 42,250 women succumbed to breast cancer in the US., and 530 men in the United States; breast cancer is the most common cancer diagnosed in women (excluding those of the skin excluding basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas) and also in situ breast carcinoma (primitive cells) with 11% or 54/494 cases. In 2024, there will be 2,790 new cases of invasive breast cancer in men and 313,510 in women. In addition, there will also be an additional 56,500 new cases of ductal carcinoma in situ among females alone. These figures make it clear: ‘There is still a battle to be fought and advocacy against breast cancer’ (Breast Cancer Statistics | Facts & Figures | NBCC, 2024).

Breast cancer is significantly impacting the health of public systems and societies on a global scale. Age-standardized mortality in high-income countries has been reduced by 40% between the 1980s and 2020 because now there are improved treatments, there is more awareness of the disease, and they get early detection. (World Health Organization: WHO & World Health Organization: WHO, 2023) However, this disease is more common, and although more and more people are aware, it remains a significant concern. This disease imposes a heavy emotional, physical, and financial burden on patients, families, and healthcare systems.

Current therapies and treatments include surgery (lumpectomy or mastectomy), radiation therapy, and various medications used, such as hormonal therapies, chemotherapy, and targeted biological therapies are the most commonly known treatments. Early-stage cancers have a cure through surgery and radiation, while advanced stages often require systemic therapies. Although these therapies are effective, there are common side effects of these therapies, such as systemic toxicity, drug resistance, and the risk of recurrence. Hormonal therapies can cause menopausal symptoms but are generally well-tolerated. Chemotherapy is known as an effective option, but it also has bad consequences and does not work for hormone receptor-negative cancers without additional treatments (World Health Organization: WHO & World Health Organization: WHO, 2023).

There was a need for solid lipid-based nanocarriers to overcome these complications in cancer treatment. They arise with their unique properties and advantages in drug delivery. Solid lipid nanocarriers (SLNs) have emerged in the nanotechnology field. They are used to treat various diseases, but most researchers are more concerned about their use for cancer treatment. SLNs encapsulate into hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds, biocompatibility, ease of surface modification, and feasibility for scaling up. SLNs offer active and passive targeting to various organs, effectively overcoming physiological barriers and multidrug resistance pathways in cancer therapy. Despite their potential, there is a need for further research to understand the biological responses of SLNs at the cellular level to develop more effective therapeutics with reduced side effects (Sivadasan et al., 2023).

Overview of the Breast Cancer

Types of Breast Cancer

Invasive vs. non-invasive breast Cancer originates in the lobules (milk-producing glands) or ducts (milk passages). The pathology report details whether the cancer has spread outside its origin.

Invasive Breast Cancer: This type has spread into surrounding breast tissue. The two primary forms are Invasive Ductal Carcinoma (IDC), which starts in milk ducts and constitutes about 80% of all breast cancers, and the second type is Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC). ILS start from lobules, accounting for around 10% of invasive breast cancers.

Noninvasive Breast Cancer: These cancers have not spread beyond their starting point and are often considered precancers. Ductal Carcinoma in Situ (DCIS) is a subtype of noninvasive BC which is confined to the milk ducts; it is a potential precursor to invasive breast cancer. Lobular Carcinoma in Situ (LCIS) is the second type of noninvasive breast cancer, which remains within the lobules and is a benign condition. Malignant Phyllodes tumours are a rare form of breast tumour and are noninvasive, accounting for less than 1% of all breast tumours. While they can be aggressive and capable of spreading, they typically do not invade nearby tissue in the same way that more common types of breast cancer do. (Types of Breast Cancer | About Breast Cancer, n.d.).

Breast Cancer Classification Overview

Breast cancer classification involves several factors, including histological, molecular, and clinical approaches. The World Health Organization recognizes over 18 different histological types of invasive breast cancers (IBC), with invasive breast cancer of no special type (NST) being the most common, comprising 40–80% of cases. Additionally, subtypes such as invasive lobular carcinoma, tubular, and mucinous types are identified based on distinct growth patterns and cytological features.

Molecularly, breast cancers are categorized into subtypes based on mRNA gene expression levels. Initially, four subtypes were identified: Luminal, HER2-enriched, Basal-like, and Normal Breast-like, with further studies dividing the Luminal group into A and B subgroups. The Normal Breast-like subtype has been omitted due to its likelihood of representing contamination by normal mammary glands. The PAM50 gene signature, developed in 2009, has enabled the classification of breast cancer into these intrinsic subtypes with high accuracy and is now widely used in clinical settings for risk assessment and treatment decisions. Luminal breast cancers, the most common type, are typically ER-positive and categorized into Luminal A and B subtypes based on gene expression profiles related to cell proliferation and luminal-regulated pathways. Luminal A tumours, characterized by lower proliferation gene expression, generally have a better prognosis than Luminal B tumours, associated with higher grades and worse outcomes. HER2-enriched breast cancers, which make up about 10–15% of cases, are characterized by strong HER expression and the absence of ERs and PR (established receptors). This particular subtype, characterized by its rapid growth and poor prognosis, has proven favourable results since introducing HER2-targeted treatments. TNBC, which constitutes 20% of all the breast cancers diagnosed, is an ER-negative PR neg and HER2neg type. This variant is more common among young African-American women and tends to be more aggressive. Different subtypes of TNBC include basal-like, mesenchymal and immunomodulatory, with unique gene expression. Claudin-low breast cancers are largely ER, PR and HER2 negative. They also have a low expression of cell adhesion genes and high-level transcripts for epithelial-mesenchymal transition. They are characterized by poor prognosis and extensive infiltration of the immune cells and stromal cells (Łukasiewicz et al., 2021).

Diagnosis and staging of breast cancer depends on the size of the tumour, its aggressiveness as well as whether it has spread to lymph nodes or distant organs. Techniques that include mammography, ultrasound and biopsy play a crucial role in primary detection. Imaging scans that follow, such as the MRI or PET, assist in staging. Stages of breast cancer vary from 0 (noninvasive) to IV (metastatic) (Łukasiewicz et al., 2021).

 Molecular and Genetic Elements

The molecular and genetic elements of breast cancer have a significant influence on its behaviour as well as the response to treatment. The main indicators are hormone receptors (estrogen and progesterone) and HER2/neu overexpression. Various subtypes of breast cancers depend on whether or not the cancerous cells possess these receptors, which include hormone receptor-positive, HER2- positive and triple negative, which have different treatment features. There are genetic mutations, especially in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, that significantly raise breast cancer risk.

Current Cancer Therapies and Limitations

The established conventional treatment modality options for breast cancer include several approaches designed specifically to address the unique characteristics of each type and stage. They are surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, endocrine and targeted therapies. Among the surgical options for localized breast cancer are breast conservation and mastectomy, depending upon tumour size and location. A course of radiation therapy is administered to kill the remaining cancer cells and prevent a relapse. It is very common as a treatment for aggressive cancer and is also widely known for its ability to reduce ovarian failure in ER-positive tumours (Balogh, 2015). Specific breast cancer subtypes require targeted therapies, such as HER2-directed therapies like Trastuzumab. Also, treatment advancements that include innovative approaches such as nanotechnology and biological technologies ensure more tailored with less invasive interventions. This multi-pronged strategy seeks to identify the diverse manifestations of breast cancer, striking a balance between diminishing adverse effects and maximizing efficiency (Sitia et al., 2022).

Surgery

Breast cancer is primarily treated by surgery for localized tumours. The first aim is to remove the cancerous tissue while preserving as much of the breast (mammary gland) tissues as possible. Two main types of surgery are practiced: Breast-conserving surgery, lumpectomy, and other type is mastectomy. With the advent of breast-conserving surgery, which has become more and more popular due to its minimally invasive nature, a tumour, along with just a small slice of healthy tissue, is removed. For more advanced cases or those where breast conservation cannot be achieved, mastectomies which involve the whole removal of a part are considered. Many times, neoadjuvant therapies given before surgery are chemotherapy or hormone therapy, which shrinks the tumour so it is easier to remove and sometimes allows for breast conservation. From the surgical point of view, adjuvant therapies such as chemotherapy, radiation and hormone therapy are used to kill any remaining cancer cells. The surgery choices depend on tumour features, stage of the disease, state of health and individual wishes. In breast cancer surgery, modern surgical advances in the form of sentinel lymph node biopsies have considerably decreased morbidity relating to surgeries and made this procedure more effective as well as people-friendly (Czajka, 2023).

Radiation therapy (RT)

Radiation therapy is an important component of breast cancer management, especially following surgery, to minimize the risk of local recurrence. This therapy is limited to the selective use of high-energy rays to destroy residual cancer cells after surgery. RT is often administered with other treatments, such as chemotherapy, to improve overall treatment efficiency. This procedure entails precise delivery of radiation to the breast tissue involved and, on occasion, even some regions near lymph nodes to optimize cancer cell destruction without harming unaffected cells. Adverse effects are not infrequent and cause skin irritation, pain, and itching; in some cases, loss of the epidermis insolation leads to reduction or even disappearance of tactile perception in the treated area. The RT technique, including dosage and treatment period, is chosen based on the particularity of a person's tumour, such as its size or location, as well as general health conditions. The latest developments in RT technologies enable more accurate targeting of radiation exposures, with fewer side effects and better patient outcomes. Apart from the use of RT as a treatment for localized breast cancer, this method is also critical in palliative care to manage symptoms when advanced disease presents. The aim is to enhance the quality of life through pain and other related symptom relief (Abraha et al., 2018).

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is critical in breast cancer treatment, predominantly for its aggressiveness, like ER-negative tumours and TNBC (Triple Negative Breast Cancer), as well as HER2-positive form (Wankhade et al., 2023). It shows efficacy in both adjuvant and neoadjuvant settings. Drugs like doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide are usually used in chemotherapy regimens, which may also include taxanes depending on the age, nodal status or other characteristics of the tumour. The chemo regimen is usually spaced 12 – 24 weeks, administered at maximum efficacy and acceptable tolerability dosages. It is recommended to use dose-dense schedules helped by granulocyte colony-stimulating factors for highly proliferative tumours. The ability of chemotherapy to treat ER-positive tumours is in part due to the induction of ovarian failure. There is a trend towards non-anthracycline and taxane-containing regimens, especially in the case of patients with an increased risk for cardiac complications. Also, nanotechnology chemotherapy is designed to eliminate systemic toxicity and enhance the quality of life through more precise drug delivery (Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer | Breast Cancer Treatment, n.d.).

Conventionally used Treatments Limitations

 In breast cancer treatment, if chemotherapy is administered, drug resistance presents a major challenge. Cancer cells eventually develop resistance to chemotherapy, which makes it less effective. Fellow resistance mechanisms include various activities at the cellular level, for example, an increase in drug efflux proteins like P glycoprotein-reduced accumulation of drugs into malignant cells (Mansoori et al., 2017). Systemic toxicity is very common with conventional chemotherapy. Chemotherapy drugs are not completive selective as they damage quickly dividing healthy cells, causing side effects like hair loss, vomiting, gastrointestinal disturbances, neutropenia and depressed immunity (Boogaard et al., 2022). Although several strategies of aggressive and multimodal treatment are employed, breast cancer recurrence is still a serious threat to the patient's life. Post-surgical or post-radiation local recurrence is common and may require more treatment. Distant metastases, which are more challenging to treat, can occur with more aggressive cancer types or in cases where initial treatment was not entirely effective. Several factors, including tumour stage, biology, lymph node involvement, and response to initial treatment, influence the risk of recurrence. Chemotherapy can impose its impact on menopause, particularly in women undergoing treatment for breast cancer and drugs can induce early menopause or exacerbate menopausal symptoms due to their influence on hormone levels (Gerber et al., 2010).

The Need for Hormonal and Targeted Therapies

To mitigate the risks faced by conventional treatments, more effective strategies such as hormonal and targeted therapies can effectively reduce risks. For example, if ER is detectable in breast cancer patients, hormone therapy can be a better option. With risks such as thromboembolic complications and endometrial problems, Tamoxifen is a better treatment option for premenopausal women (Masoud & Pagés, 2017). Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs) can be used in combination with Tamoxifen for patients after menopause. The selection of endocrine therapy is influenced by menopausal status, efficacy and side effects. Specifically, in patients with HER2 overexpression/amplification, targeted therapy, especially T-directed therapies like Trastuzumab, greatly reduces the risk of recurrence (Chumsri et al., 2011). The combination of Trastuzumab with chemotherapy has more efficacy than sequential therapy and can be safely combined with RT ET. However, its cardiotoxicity prevents simultaneous anthracycline administration (Cai et al., 2019). The HER2-directed therapy market is witnessing the advent of biosimilars and new-generation agents.

The neoadjuvant dual anti-HER2 blockade has demonstrated a better response; however, the long-term effects are still under investigation (Stanowicka-Grada & Senkus, 2023). The PI3K/mTOR pathway is a therapeutic target in some breast cancer subtypes. Everolimus inhibitors combined with exemestane have demonstrated an anti-tumour effect in postmenopausal women suffering from advanced HR+, HER2− breast cancer. An emerging target of CDK (Cycline-dependent kinases) in hormone-positive breast cancer is an effective treatment (Li et al., 2021). There has been fast-track approval of drugs like Palbociclib in combination with letrozole for treating postmenopausal women who have ER+/HER2- advanced breast cancer. These therapies are a transition towards individualized and highly selective treatment in breast cancer therapy, aimed at achieving the highest efficacy with minimal adverse effects. However, these therapies also can sometimes cause problems. For example, resistance to hormonal therapy complications remains an issue, especially in ER-positive breast cancer. Tumours can become resistant to drugs, such as tamoxifen or aromatase inhibitors. However, even targeted therapies may face resistance issues where cancer cells acquire new strategies to evade these treatments. Drug resistance development is one of the most important aspects that justify timely research. Hormonal treatments are linked to side effects and drug toxicity, such as thromboembolic complications and endometrial problems due to Tamoxifen, along with osteoporosis-associated aromatase inhibitors. Targeted therapies, designed to be more specific, could still have a systemic effect. For instance, cardiotoxicity is a major issue with Trastuzumab. The problem is striking a balance between efficacy and safety, reducing systemic toxicity without compromising treatment efficiency (Foglietta et al., 2017).

Solid Lipid Nanocarriers (SLNs)

SLNs are nanocarriers with a solid core in the size range of 10–1000 nm. They comprise biodegradable solid lipids (like mono-, di-, triglycerides, fatty acids, waxes, and steroids) and contain lipophilic and hydrophilic emulsifying agents.

Water-soluble and lipophilic substances are incompatible, leaving many delivery release problems. This could not hold water among the hydrophobic environments being produced, but double emulsification can overcome such a dilemma. This method increases drugs' bioavailability by improving their absorption mechanism. SLNs are suitable for carrying intraparticle hydrophilic and interparticle lipophilic APIs but may be prepared using various administration routes.

Physicochemical Properties

SLNs have many unique physicochemical characteristics as these particles have a solid lipid core designed to be loaded with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic active pharmaceutical ingredients or drugs, increasing the solubility of many drugs. A nanocarrier's solid core can be passively delivered to cancer cells because it enhances permeability and retention (EPR), or active delivery is given by attaching targeting ligands to its surface. The inner core of these nanoparticles has biocompatible, biodegradable lipids such as triglycerides and fatty acids.

It is a fact that SLNs' entire mission in therapeutic efficacy can be attributed to the control of drug loading from these nanoparticles. Therapeutic drug release is regulated effectively by the solid lipid matrix. This involves the slow release of the drugs, which is important to maintain therapeutic plasma concentrations throughout the entire course of any treatment except for a few short‐acting drugs, such as heparin. At the same time, SLNs are not only coated with ligands or some other coating designed to target released drugs. This delivery mechanism allows the SLNs to transfer the drug selectively, concentrate it more at its site of action, and reduce systemic side effects while increasing its therapeutic efficacy (Satapathy et al., 2021). 

Their small size also allows them to penetrate biological barriers, e.g. the blood-brain barrier. Physicochemical properties of SLNs, such as particle size, composition and surface properties, are designed in such a way as to improve drug solubility and raise the bioavailability level while at the same time making them sustainable for use over a long period in delivering drugs. All these features make SLNs an incredibly multi-functional drug delivery system. Given all these advantages of SLNs as a platform for targeted drug delivery, their low toxicity profile of SLNs signifies that they are a major strategic asset of future cancer therapy. SLNs are also very flexible in that they accept both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs, thus encompassing a large array of various pharmacological compounds. One of the key practical benefits of their scalability for large-scale production is that it allows mass drug manufacturing.

Additionally, the SLNs have high biocompatibility, limiting the possibility of developing negative reactions in the body. Another important point is their ability to direct the drugs against specific cells or tissues, improving such treatments' effectiveness. Secondly, SLNs can help mitigate the toxicity of other specific drugs as well when used as an effective alternative to these medications that may cause negative reactions in their conventional forms. Such characteristics make solid lipid nanoparticles a very flexible and prospective carrier for therapeutic drug delivery applications (Satapathy et al., 2021).

Other types of nanocarriers

Including liposomes, there are other types of nanoparticles such as polymeric micelles, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes, ceramic nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, silica terrace, and magnetic particles hydrogels exomatrixes, or extracellular matrixes deliver specific drugs to the cancer cells without much side effects. Liposomes and nanoparticles solve the issues of drug solubility, stability, and targeted delivery. There is a controlled release in the polymeric micelles and specific control of the drug loading and targeting through dendrimers. There is a penetrability through the cells with carbon nanotubes, photothermal therapy via gold nanosphere and sustained drug release on silica-based NPs. Magnetic nanoparticles use a wide field of application in drugs, hydrogels allow for their implantation, and exposure provides biocompatible low-immunogenic delivery options that can improve the action efficiency and reduce toxicity in cancer therapy (Edis et al., 2021).

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) have several advantages compared to the other drug delivery methods. These include the simplicity of preparation, reduced toxicity compared to other nanoparticles and allowing for better bioavailability. Such engineered SLNS can effectively transport DNA to the binding sites, suggesting that these stable nanostructures are very versatile in their application and also applicable through several methods, such as the transdermal method of penetration, oral drug absorption or injection. SLNs promote higher bioavailability through oral and transdermal ways, and this flexibility is especially important in chemotherapy because SLNs help to alleviate some of the toxicities resulting from conventional intravenous administration.

They also help in the oral absorption of drugs that normally have a low bioavailability because the gastrointestinal tract has barriers. This flexibility makes them good vehicle materials for the bioactive agents. However, SLN poses several challenges, such as drug leakage and also low loading efficiency. Such challenges have propelled the advent of modern nanoparticle systems such as NLC (Hu et al., 2010).

Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs)

Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) have already revolutionized lipid-based drug delivery systems. These carriers have captured all interest among researchers and pharmaceutical developers because they contain distinctive characteristics of superiority compared to SLNS. NLCs are known as a more improved method due to the efficiency and stability of drug delivery that shows remarkable advances in different aspects, including increased solubility, enhanced loading capacity, and prolonged shelf-life. NLCs comprise a colloidal drug delivery system with an intricate lipid framework. Rather than a crystalline and rigid lipid matrix, as is found in SLNs, NLCs have an amorphous structure containing both solid and liquid fats. Nanostructured Lipids Carriers (NLCs) are different in structure than Solid Polymeric Particles (SLNs), which are also based on the use of such carriers owing to several NLCs, which are characterized by a disorganized lipid medium that contains both solid and liquid fatty substances are better than the SLNs in many aspects. The use of NLCs ensures better drug solubility, allowing the incorporation of a wider variety of poorly water-soluble drugs. The improvement in drug loading capacity has the effect of less consumption through decreased dosages. In addition, when NLCs are used, lipid crystallization is kept to a minimum or non-existent. NLCs have many advantages over SLNs in the personalized drug delivery system: they are more stable, can be given by alternative pathways and offer a bigger range to suit various treatment sites. From the above example, we know that NLCs bring improvements: enhanced drug solubility, greater loading capacity and longer shelf-life (Pan et al., 2021).

After ten years of SLN, there was a breakthrough in Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs). At room temperature, a small amount of liquid lipids (oils) is integrated into the structure of these NLCs, and the matrix undergoes structural rearrangements as a result. This development solved a problem seen in SLNs. In the crystalline structure of these earlier particles, the growth of this structure often expels the drug incorporated into it. Incorporating oil into NLCs reduces the high crystallinity of the lipid core of the SLN. This makes the particles more structured and able to carry more drugs. It also confers longer stability to the drug (Montoto et al., 2020). SLN/NLC synthesis involves injecting energy into the system to make very small particles of high specific surface area. This energy control can be undertaken in various ways, including ultrasonic waves, high pressure, high-speed homogenization and microwaves. The large surface area of the dispersed nanoparticles in the aqueous medium must also be maintained without causing more particles to stick together. This is typically accomplished by electrostatic or steric stabilization, and surfactants are used (Montoto et al., 2020).

SLNs in Drug Delivery for Breast Cancer

 Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) represent a nonviral vector through which the small-molecule drugs can be administered. Usually made up of a quartet of lipids, including phospholipids such as DSPC or DOPE, these particles are key because they have diameters less than 100 nm. LNPs are formed when ionizable or cationic lipids are incorporated into the liposomes, resulting in oligonucleotide encapsulation due to the electrostatic interactions. The critical component of these systems is the amphiphilic ionizable lipid, which has a cationic head and two hydrophobic tails. In the absence of charge, LNPs typically interact hydrophobically with the cell surfaces or enter cells through endocytosis. Once inside a cell, the acidic nature of an endosome causes ionizable lipids to change into a cationic form, disrupting that membrane and releasing RNA from the cytoplasm. LNPs are mainly studied in mRNA vaccine delivery but are also used in cancer and gene therapy. SLNs are also an essential component of mRNA vaccine delivery because these particles protect from degradation of the negative nucleic acids. SLNs provide stability and safety, which benefit the mRNA-based therapies used in vaccines or cancer treatments. It has been recently demonstrated that LNPs can be engineered with antibodies for cancer treatment through targeting factors like angiogenesis and tumour cells, several being applied in phase 1 clinical trials (Mo et al., 2023).

Liposomes and other systems have had many difficulties with rapid drug releasement as well as instability. SLN nanoparticles blend the benefits of polymeric nanoparticles, offering low toxicity, targeted drug delivery, controlled release, high drug load capacity, and protection from degradation. SLNs, which form aqueous colloidal dispersions with a solid lipid matrix, are particularly effective in water-soluble treatments. They exhibit small size, extensive surface area, and significant drug capacity. For example, in studies using A549 cell lines, SFN-loaded SLNs demonstrated a greater reduction in cell viability compared to free SFN at the same concentrations. This new colloidal carrier system, distinct from oil-in-water emulsions, shows promise as an alternative in drug delivery (Mo et al., 2023). The application of SLNs in drug delivery primarily aims to enhance the bioavailability and effectiveness of drugs, especially poorly soluble ones, while minimizing nonspecific toxicity and immunogenicity. SLNs represent an innovative way of treating breast cancer. For example, RNA interference-based therapies involving LNPs have proven to be very effective in the TNBC models, which may indicate a future undertaking role of the latter and SLNs for cancer treatment (Mo et al., 2023). 

Enhancing Bioavailability and Solubility of SLN

Improving the bioavailability of anti-breast cancer agents is essential since the drug absorption rate and extent into a patient's bloodstream control efficacy and side effects. While oral drug delivery remains the most preferred and cost-effective pharmacokinetic route, the bioavailability of hydrophobic and amphiphilic drugs is very limited through this mode. SLNs have been identified as capable of improving the bioavailability in drug absorption or oral delivery systems owing to various properties such as high solubility, small particle size, and a large zeta potential alongside stability. Antitumor drugs encapsulated in the SLNs are preserved from degradation and have better stability, thus making them a promising carrier for cancer treatment.

Curcumin-loaded SLNs (Cur-SLNS) have much better biocompatibility and stability due to their favourable zeta potential, which improves the drug's bioavailability. This enhanced formulation also has the potential to address some of these limitations, thus presenting it as a much more effective alternative in cancer therapy (Mo et al., 2023). Nowadays, the most widely used chemotherapeutic agent for TNBC is today cisplatin. However, cisplatin's effectiveness is often limited, and it can cause serious side effects. Additionally, many versions of cisplatin are not easily absorbed by the body, which adds to the challenges of its use in treatment. It has been shown that encapsulating cisplatin in SLNs can increase its efficacy and decrease its toxicity. The toxic effect of SLNs loaded with cisplatin on cancer cells is much higher than that of free form and affects normal tissues. In addition, SLNs increase the bioavailability of natural antitumor substances such as curcumin, which has strong anti-tumour properties but is poorly soluble and eliminated from the body rapidly.

Overcoming Multidrug Resistance

Breast cancer treatment is complicated by multidrug resistance (MDR). MDR, being a condition whereby the cancer cells become less sensitive to drugs, undergoes treatment with many of the antitumor agents. With its low toxicity and better drug stability, the SLNs became a potential solution to the problem of MDR. One of the most interesting examples of MDR in the treatment of breast cancer is resistance to Tamoxifen. This selective estrogen receptor modulator effectively treats hormone receptors positive type and ER-positive subtypes. Tamoxifen's popularity spanned over four decades, yet it is resisted in roughly half of the cases with positive ER. This resistance mainly results from the loss of ER expression or function in the tumour cells. The participation of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family, particularly the upregulation of drug efflux transporters such as P-glycoprotein P-gp, also greatly enhances chemoresistance. SLNs loaded with Tamoxifen have shown much potential to reverse this resistance. They reverse the P-gp source of drug efflux, thereby inducing apoptosis in the tamoxifen-resistant breast cancer cells. The apoptotic effect of the SLNs can overcome resistance, especially in the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. Tamoxifen-SLN treatment simultaneously inhibits the anti-apoptotic gene expression and decreases certain microRNAs (miR497, miR1280) associated with resistance (Eskiler et al., 2018).

Another example of how SLN reduce resistance is Doxorubicin, which is one main type of chemotherapy drug used in breast cancer cells, especially those that have been identified as triple negative; often resist Doxorubicin by producing more drug efflux transporters, such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) (Lee et al., 2023). The resistance of resistant cancer cells to Doxorubicin leads to the drug accumulating inside cells and gradually losing its therapeutic efficacy against them. The SLNs promote more effective delivery of Doxorubicin into the cancer cells, bypassing P-gp transport-related efflux. The nanoscale size and lipid content of SLNs enable them to evade the efflux mechanisms, ensuring a higher drug concentration within cancer cells. This approach enhances the drug's ability to harm any resistant cancer cells while keeping its systemic toxicity down- the main problem with Doxorubicin. So, Doxorubicin-loaded SLNs point out a real leap forward in MDR treatment for breast cancer; they are a much better choice for patients (Lee et al., 2023). Some SLNs, in addition to MDR in breast cancer, also resist drug resistance in the city via their unique characteristics and mechanisms. First, their nanoscale size makes it easier for drugs to penetrate and retain. So, they accumulate more in tumour tissues. Secondly, the lipid matrix of SLNs enables hydrophobic drugs like Doxorubicin to be encapsulated well and, therefore, protected from premature degradation. This means that the drug's molecules are encapsulated, shielding them from efflux mechanisms, including P-glycoprotein (P-gp) transporters. These are the ones that pump drugs out of cancer cells. By escaping those efflux pumps, SLNs maintain higher intracellular concentrations of Doxorubicin, countering drug resistance and advancing the efficacy of this chemotherapeutic agent in resistant breast cancer cells (Lee et al., 2023).

 The Effect of Combination Therapy Using the SLNs

The use of combination therapies using Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) is one of the breakthroughs in science for treating different diseases, such as cancer. This method exploits the peculiarities of SLNs, enabling a simultaneous multi-therapeutic release and granting much more sophisticated target therapy. The basis of this approach is that it addresses the many shortcomings presented by traditional therapies. SLNs improve the solubility and stability of drugs and provide controlled release over a specific period; they can also target certain tissues or cells, eliminating systemic toxicity and side effects. Moreover, using SLNs as a means of co-delivery can easily overcome drug resistance by targeting various pathways in the cancer cells. This varied approach is particularly important in diseases such as cancer, where diversity and drug resistance are persistent challenges. As such, SLN-combination therapy constitutes a promising route that should yield treatment with much-improved efficacy and safety (Kamarehei, 2022).

Synergistic Effects of Drug Combinations

Nanoparticles facilitate combination therapy by their properties. The capacity of nanoparticles to entrap different therapeutic agents allows for the convenient use of drug combinations without increasing the administration frequency. They can enable the combination of different therapeutic classes in a single platform to target specific treatment objectives. Nanoparticle formulations provide a controlled release process, normalizing compounds' pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and stability with different chemical properties. Such formulations provide a longer circulation and sustained and controlled drug release at specific proportions with adjustable releasing rates – features impossible to achieve using the conventional system (Zhang et al., 2016). Combination therapies with SLNs in breast cancer treatments show efficient encapsulation and delivery of various therapeutic agents such as chemotherapeutics, hormonal drugs, targeted drug molecules or immunotherapy components. These mixtures take advantage of the exclusive features of SLNs for selective and specific drug release, improved solubility and systematically reduced toxicity. SLNs are chemotherapeutic agents that enhance the solubility and efficacy of drugs such as Doxorubicin, Paclitaxel, Docetaxel, and 5-Fluorouracil, which ensures targeted action while reducing adverse reactions. SLNs are used for hormonal therapies and can improve the Tamoxifen and Letrozole delivery that is essential for hormone receptor-positive breast cancer, eliminate systemic hormonal effects as well as overcome drug resistance.

For targeted therapeutics, SLNs help the selective delivery of drugs with HER2/neu-specific targets, such as Trastuzumab and Lapatinib. SLNs providing immunotherapy is a relatively recent discovery. New research suggests that they can optimize the delivery of immunotherapies such as Pembrolizumab by maximizing immune response while minimizing side effects. These are all SLN-based combination treatments for breast cancer that offer promising strategies due to synergistic effects among the therapeutic agents that would improve their efficacy and safety (Zhang et al., 2016).

Customizing SLNs for Multiple Drugs

In chemotherapy and combined drug treatment, SLNs are used to combine various chemotherapeutic drugs to enhance their efficacy and reduce side effects to treat BC. There are some best examples of how the combination of drugs with SLN works better to treat the disease. For example, Doxorubicin, as a well-known chemotherapeutic agent, is combined with other drugs, such as mitomycin C, in SLN formulations. For instance, polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles can co-encapsulate doxorubicin and mitomycin C, enhancing their efficacy against multidrug-resistant breast cancer cells. Another SLN-formulated drug combination is Paclitaxel-based treatment, which is also used for BC. Paclitaxel is often included in SLN formulations with other drugs for synergistic effects. For example, it is mixed with rapamycin and 17-AAG in a nanoparticle micellar formulation called Triolimus. This formulation has shown superior antitumor effects in tumour xenograft models. Docetaxel is another drug used in chemotherapy which is used in conjunction with targeted therapies, for example, with Trastuzumab. For example, docetaxel-loaded, trastuzumab-functionalized nanostructured lipid carriers have been developed to target HER2-positive breast cancer cells. Combinations of 5-Fluorouracil with other drugs in SLNs for breast cancer are less frequently reported; it is feasible to combine it with drugs that target different pathways of cancer cell growth and survival. All these drug combinations are designed to exploit the advantages of SLNs to provide improved solubility, targeted delivery, controlled release, and reduced systemic toxicity. It is important to note that the choice of these combinations depends on factors like the type of breast cancer or the molecular targets of the cancer cells and the pharmacological properties of the drugs involved (Fisusi & Akala, 2019).

In hormonal therapy, Tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, is frequently used in hormone receptor-positive breast cancer treatment. When combined with SLNs, Tamoxifen's bioavailability can increase, and its side effects can be minimized. SLNs ensure a more targeted delivery of Tamoxifen to breast cancer cells, potentially reducing the impact on other estrogen-sensitive tissues. SLNs may also be used to co-deliver Tamoxifen with other drugs that work through different mechanisms, enhancing overall treatment efficacy. Aromatase inhibitors, like Letrozole, are used to decrease the production of estrogen in the body, which is crucial for hormone receptor-positive breast cancer (Farrar, 2023).

SLN, in combination with targeted therapies, Trastuzumab, a monoclonal antibody that targets the HER2/neu receptor, is a cornerstone in treating HER2-positive breast cancer. When combined with SLNs, Trastuzumab can be delivered more efficiently and directly to the cancer cells, enhancing its therapeutic effect while minimizing off-target effects. SLNs can be functionalized to carry Trastuzumab and chemotherapeutic agents, such as docetaxel or doxorubicin, providing a synergistic effect where the targeted therapy can specifically attack HER2-positive cells. In contrast, the chemotherapeutic agent kills the cancer cells more broadly. Another example is Lapatinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, which can be effectively encapsulated in SLNs for targeted delivery to tumour cells.

Challenges and Strategies in Formulation

 Ensuring the physical and chemical stability of SLNs is challenging while combining multiple drugs with different properties. While choosing a drug for combination, it must be ensured that these are chemically compatible and maintain their efficacy when encapsulated together in SLNs.  Achieving controlled and targeted release of each drug at the tumour site while maintaining the integrity of the SLN is complex. Complicating matters is the profusion of drugs to be put on SLNs. The drugs should all go on the nanocarriers together. However, one must also preserve their different ratios by therapeutic agents to achieve synergistic effects equal to those from highly toxic doses. Completely altering the targeting abilities of SLNs so that they only go to points in the tumour region selected and don't touch healthy issues, too, is also a nightmare job. Making it feasible to produce drugs in the biotechnology industry that are scalable and reproducible for clinical use needs much work. (Montoto et al. 2020).                            

 Other Clinical Applications of SLNs Breast Cancer Treatment     

      Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) are effective breast cancer therapy, but when combined with chemotherapeutic drugs like Doxorubicin (DOX), Docetaxel (DTX), and Paclitaxel (PTX), they become fantastic. Doxorubicin (DOX) is an anthracycline antibiotic. By acting synergistically with some other drugs in breast cancer chemotherapy, DOX proves effective but brings severe side effects and multiple drug resistance (MDR), which can lead to failure of therapy. RGD-DOX-SLNs is a new method for delivering drugs into tumours. This approach resulted in a marked improvement in tumour suppression relative to that achieved by DOX alone and without the suspected toxic effects of RGD alone. When letrozole (LTZ), effective in treating hormone-dependent breast cancer, is formulated into small lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), its targeting efficiency is greatly improved, and toxicity is significantly reduced. FA-SLNs-LTZ, using folate receptor-mediated endocytosis and internalization, displays increased apoptosis efficiency in MCF-7 cells in vitro and in nude mice in vivo. This indicates the potential for localized and effective treatment in the present environment. Docetaxel (DTX), a steroidal agent used for various cancers, has low water solubility. As SLN-DTX formulations have shown high encapsulation efficiency, their spectrum of action includes inhibiting breast cancer metastasis and reducing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, which are closely connected with cancer progression.

Furthermore, innovative treatment strategies have been explored, such as concomitant injection of chemotherapeutic agents and the tumour suppressor gene p53. PTX/camptothecin (CPT) were co-delivered by transfecting p53 mRNA into the LNP, and these preparations displayed superior antitumour effects in TNBC treatment. Breast cancer therapy now has a platform with SLNs. Moreover, they can raise the efficacy of traditional chemotherapy agents because pain is out of their domain, focusing on cells that need attention and, at the same time, in general, reducing the dose of drugs. This advance in cancer therapy improves upon its predecessors through innovative treatments like the following.

Future Perspectives and Challenges

 Future applications involving solid lipid nanoparticles are promising. Indeed, there are constantly emerging new approaches and potential likely to appear in the future. SLNs have proven to be highly effective at increasing the delivery and effects of anticancer drugs. In addition, they also have the added advantage of improved stability and biocompatibility. Furthermore, SLNs can encapsulate hydrophilic drugs and those That will lead to dependence on the universality of drug delivery carriers in breast cancer therapy (Sivadasan et al., 2023). Researchers continue to find ways for SLNs to work with other treatment methods. These include immunological therapy and gene therapy, bringing about more effective, comprehensive courses of treatment. The future of SLNs in Breast Cancer Therapy also hinges on advances in nanotechnology and personalized medicine. As our understanding of Breast Cancer grows, SLNs may be tailored to target particular subtypes of breast cancer with the result that therapy becomes more specific (Sivadasan et al., 2023).

Conclusion

Using Solid Lipid Nanocarriers (SLNs) in the treatment of breast cancer indicates a paradigm shift in cancer therapeutics. Breast cancer, a widespread and complex disease, has seen a wide variety of treatments, from surgery to chemotherapy, radiation and hormone therapy. All the same, these methods bring about their problems, such as systemic toxicity in the body, drug resistance and side effects. SLNs offer a way out of these troubles. The unique physicochemical properties of SLNs make them an excellent platform for drug delivery. They can carry both hydrophilic and hydrophobic therapeutic agents to provide controlled release and precise targeting in treatment. This multi-usage puts drugs into a form which is more soluble for the human body, increasing the bioavailability of the agent and lowering the incidence of systemic side effects. Further, they are both biocompatible and amenable to production at scale. For all these reasons, they suddenly become an attractive option in cancer treatment.

The development of SLNs faces many challenges. Specifically, it is necessary to make them stable, load drugs efficiently, and deliver them where they are needed in the body. Future studies are expected to solve these problems, thereby improving the efficacy of SLNs in breast cancer treatment. With the addition of SLNs to advanced therapies such as gene therapy and immunotherapy, better but more comprehensive treatments for breast cancer will emerge. In summary, SLNs are a major advance in the treatment of breast cancer. Their ability to improve the accuracy of drug delivery, reduce side effects and breakthrough drug resistance for cancer treatment offers a new avenue that will be more effective toward curing cancer. Research into SLNs will undoubtedly give us hope for the future of breast cancer therapy and probably change forever the management problems of this intractable disease.

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