Strength Training in Basketball: Basic Concepts, Reflections and Practical Applications

>>INTRODUCTION

Basketball is a team sport with intermittent characteristics, in which the motor actions used in matches require explosive dynamic movements (accelerations, decelerations, changes of direction, jumps, etc.) that show the level of strength of the players (Sánchez-Sánchez, 2007; Brien et al, 2020).

Basketball players with high levels of strength can produce superior performance in specific motor tasks performed during training and competitions (Brien et al, 2020).

However, to discuss strength training in basketball without remembering aspects of the past in the sport would miss important issues ...

In basketball played four or five decades ago, the players' body somatotype differed from today's athletes.

What was noticeable at that time were players with high stature, but who had a not very developed muscle mass, similar to an ectomorphic configuration, where body linearity predominates.

In addition, the basketball of that different period was more focused on the technical-tactical appearance, quite different from the physical basketball of recent times ...

Professional basketball played in the current days (NBA, Euroleague, NBB, ACB, etc.) is considered a sport of strength and power. Although physical contact is not permitted by the rules, what is observed are different degrees of involuntary or voluntary collisions and that the strongest player ends up taking some advantage ...

After this initial approach, I would like to point out that the intention of this text is to show the applicability of the different types of strength training aimed specifically at basketball players.

>>STRENGTH TRAINING

The force seen in the law of physics can be understood in Isaac Newton's second law, which is the result of the product of mass by acceleration (F = m.a) (Turner & Comfort, 2018).

In contrast, the strength present in human sports action refers to the ability of the central nervous system to produce muscle tension in its different muscle contraction regimes (concentric, eccentric and\or isometric) (Vretaros, 2002; Zatsiorsky & Kraemer, 2008) .

According to Turner & Comfort (2018) the definition of strength refers to the ability to overcome an external force. That is, the athlete needs to functionally move his body against the force of gravity, the strength of an opponent or even an external object such as a dumbbell.

For Bompa & Haff (2012) when we refer to strength, we are talking about the maximum torque that a muscle or muscle group is capable of executing.

Strength training is also called neuromuscular training and can improve the players' physical performance, as well as reduce the risk of musculoskeletal injuries (Hopper et al, 2017; Boyle, 2015).

The biomotor capacity strength is evident in several motor actions performed by basketball players.

In the upper limbs we can see the strength with the different types of passes, short and long distance shots, etc.

In the lower limbs, on the other hand, the force occurs in accelerations, decelerations, changes of direction, jumps, landings, etc.

In the trunk (core), the force assists in the production of powerful and highly plasticized movements, in the balance after landing, in the prevention of injuries, etc.

In basketball, the player's strength can be divided into absolute strength and relative strength. For example, absolute strength is evident when the player moves an opponent's body in a collision during the match. On the other hand, in relative strength, the player would be able to overcome inertia and carry his own body weight during a jump.

An important topic when discussing specific motor strength in basketball is that we are looking for functional strength to improve performance in motor actions, not the aesthetics of the players.

Well-planned functional training in basketball allows the participation of all the muscular chains involved in the different planes of movement and, simultaneously, through integrated exercises, enhancing the quality of motor actions as a final product (Boyle, 2015; Boyle, 2018; Bossi, 2011; Teixeira & Guedes Jr, 2014; Cole & Panariello, 2016; Patel & Home, 2017; Sato & Shimokochi, 2017)

To design a good strength training program in basketball, the fitness coach must be able to know and select the best means, methods and systems. Sousa (2017) reports that means and methods are procedures and techniques to achieve any task. On the other hand, the same author says that the system is a combination of the means and methods to be adopted in the prescription of strength training.

However, when it comes to means, methods and systems for strength training and development, we find in the literature different schools that value their respective methodologies: German school (Weineck, 2003), Russian school (Platonov, 2008; Zakharov, 1992), North American school (Lloyd et al, 2016; Ratamess, 2015; Boyle, 2015; Boyle, 2018; Cole & Panariello, 2016), Canadian school (Poliquin, 1997), Brazilian school (Teixeira & Guedes Jr, 2014; Vretaros, 2015; Vretaros, 2002; Bossi, 2011; Kamel, 2004; Gentil, 2014), Australian school (Haff & Nimphius, 2012), Italian school (Bosco, 2000), French school (Cometti, 2005), Spanish school (Manso, 1999; Badillo & Ayestarán, 2001), among others.

Regardless of the type of school to be adopted, when seeking to work the motor strength in sport, we find the following manifestations of it: anatomical adaptation, hypertrophy, maximum strength, power and power endurance (Bompa & Haff, 2012; Vretaros, 2015; Vretaros , 2002; Haff & Nimphius, 2012; Thomas et al, 2017).

These manifestations of motor strength should be implemented during the development of a strength training program aimed at basketball players.

Shelling & Torres-Ronda, (2016) point out that for basketball, strength training must have some goals in mind, such as: preventing injuries against rapid movements of players performed mainly in the eccentric regime (landings and decelerations). Also, the authors point out that the basketball player has an improved neuromuscular control, to react to unpredictable situations that happen in a match.

It should be noted that the manifestations of strength should not be analyzed individually, but through the association with other biomotor capabilities, such as speed, agility and power (Bompa & Haff, 2012; Platonov, 2008; Lloyd et al, 2016).

It is worth noting that among the mentioned manifestations of strength, there are specific periods of development during the season (early pre-season, late pre-season, early-season, middle-season, late-season, and off-season).

A strength training program duly periodized through training cycles, together with a systematic control of loads, can provide significant improvements in the functional physical fitness of basketball players.

The physiological responses to the loads imposed by strength training are unique and individualized for each player. Although basketball is a team sport, not all players respond equally to the same load, as there are highly responsive and less responsive individuals. The intra-individual and inter-individual variations can be true or false in face of the demands of the load (Zatsiorsky & Kraemer, 2008; Tibana et al, 2017; Jukic et al, 2020).

>>ANATOMICAL ADAPTATION

This phase can also be called by some authors as strength endurance or general adaptation of strength (Thomas et al, 2017 ; Barjast &Mirzael, 2017).

Anatomical adaptation is the primary work performed to promote muscle, tendon and ligament tissue adaptations before subjecting the player's locomotor system to more intense training (Bompa, 1996 ; Vretaros, 2015).

The anatomical adaptation phase should and can be used after a long period of absence in the practice of strength training (Bompa, Di Pasquale & Cornachia, 2012).

According to Fahey (2014), some tissues have little or no blood supply and, when injured, they recover more slowly. In this case, anatomical adaptation training helps to prevent injuries, making the athlete less susceptible to injury.

Platonov (2008) considers strength endurance as the ability of the athlete's neuromuscular system to maintain strength indicators for prolonged periods of time.

A striking feature of this type of manifestation of strength is the performance of a large number of repetitions with loads ranging from mild to moderate intensity.

In basketball players, we must pay attention to the type of muscle fiber required in strength endurance (type I - slow contraction) so that it does not generate negative effects, because the type of fiber most required for basketball is type II fiber (fast contraction).

Basketball is a sport of strength and power that requires type II fibers (fast contraction). Some physical trainers prefer not to use this type of work (strength endurance) or use it for a very short period. They start with hypertrophy preceding maximum strength work, as they would not be generating fiber conversion incorrectly (Vretaros, 2015; Bompa & Haff, 2012)

This type of workout can be developed through circuit training. through exercises performed with their own body weight, elastic bands, kettlebells, etc.

>>HYPERTROPHY

Every time I hear the word hypertrophy I remember the bodybuilders with their sculpted bodies.

In basketball, the training of hypertrophy is not to make the player “inflated”, but rather, the harmonious development of his body morphology for the athlete to withstand the collisions and\or physical contacts that occur in the matches.

Hypertrophy is nothing more than an increase in the cross-sectional area of the muscle (Bompa & Haff, 2012).

Gentil (2014) claims that hypertrophy is related to the volumetric increase of a muscle achieved by increasing the size of its muscle fibers.

The development of muscle hypertrophy can occur in two ways from a physiological point of view: myofibrillar hypertrophy or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy (Zatsiorsky & Kraemer, 2008; Gentil, 2014).

According to Zatsiorsky & Kraemer, (2008) sarcoplasmic hypertrophy happens through the growth of sarcoplasm, which is an interfibrillar substance. In contrast, in myofibrillar hypertrophy, there is an enlargement of the muscle fiber through gains in myofibrils and contractile filaments of myosin and actin.

According to Krzysztofik et al, (2019) muscle hypertrophy through strength training can be achieved with a rational combination of mechanical tension and metabolic stress.

The mechanical tension method for the development of hypertrophy would be correlated with mechanical stimuli obtained through the use of loads and high ranges of motion (Gentil, 2014).

On the other hand, Gentil (2014) emphasizes that metabolic stress is obtained by increasing the accumulation of metabolites promoted by the combination of muscle contraction regimes (concentric, eccentric and isometric).

Krzysztofik et al, (2019) warn that hypertrophy occurs when muscle protein synthesis exceeds its degradation and results in a positive balance in certain cumulative periods.

Zatsiorky & Kraemer (2008) claim that the principle of protein overcompensation is that it governs hypertrophy, generating gains in myofobrillar material.

Gain large amounts of muscle hypertrophy is not a simple task. It depends on a sensitive balance through a well-structured training program, proper nutrition, hormonal balance and controlled rest in order to maximize muscle adaptations.

In addition, Platonov (2008) says that the magnitude of muscle mass gains depends on the composition of the type of muscle fiber.

In this sense, the literature suggests that type II fibers have a large cross-sectional area (McQuilliam et al, 2020).

A striking feature of training aimed at hypertrophy is the presence of high volumes (sets x repetitions x loads) to obtain the desired muscle growth (Krzysztofik et al, 2019).

Among the techniques and methods to train muscle hypertrophy, the literature reports some: ascending pyramids, descending pyramids, reverse pyramids, triangle pyramids, drop set, pre-exhaustion, super-sets, cluster-sets, super-slow, eccentric load, vascular occlusion, among others (Gentil, 2014; Krzysztofik et al, 2019; Platonov, 2008).

Knowing how to manipulate some variables such as the speed of movement execution can determine the success of the hypertrophy program (Poliquin, 1997).

In this sense, there are four digits corresponding to the phases of the movement (eccentric, transition, concentric, transition). For example: (2\0\1\0). You can manipulate these numbers (tempo training) in such a way that they will directly reflect on the time of muscle tension to generate hypertrophy.

According to Krzysztofik et al, (2019) if the emphasis is on the concentric phase of the movement, we will have an increase in the angle of pennation. However, if the eccentric phase of the movement is emphasized, there will be an increase in the length of the fascicle.

The use of commercial food supplements (pre and post exercise) such as whey protein to gain muscle mass during strength training aimed at achieving hypertrophy is a common task (Colker et al, 2000 ; Hulmi et al, 2010 ; Wilborn et al, 2013 ; Taylor et al, 2016).

Taylor et al, (2016) carried out a study on hypertrophy in female college basketball players. The players were divided into two groups: protein supplementation (24.0 grams) and maltodextrin supplementation (24.0 grams). The strength training program lasted eight weeks (4 times per week). In the results, the group of players supplemented with protein obtained greater gains in muscle mass compared to the group that was supplemented with maltodextrin (P=+1.4 kg, p=0.003 and M=+0.4kg, p=0.095). Also, the supplementation group improved physical performance in the bench press test, as well as improved agility values.

In another study, Wilborn et al, (2013) compared two common types of protein used in strength training with the objective of hypertrophy (whey and casein) in female basketball players from NCAA Division III. The players were randomized into two groups: 24-g whey protein or 24-g casein protein during eight weeks of strength training. In the results, the whey and casein group reduced body fat (-2.0% and -1.0%, respectively), increased lean mass (+1.5 Kg and +1.4Kg, respectively), in addition to variables related to physical performance such as 1RM leg press (+88.7Kg and +90.0 Kg, respectively), 1RM bench press (+7.5 Kg and +4.3 Kg, respectively), vertical jump (+4.1 cm and +3.5 cm, respectively), among other parameters.

Really, the use of food supplementation helps in muscle mass gains, that is, hypertrophy. In this regard, a study by Zajac et al, (2003) compared three types of dietary supplementation in basketball players: creatine, HMB and a combination of creatine and HMB. Each group of players received one of these types of supplementation for thirty days. During this period, the players performed a specific strength training program (3 times per week). In the results, the intake of creatine and creatine with HMB provided an increase in body mass and fat free mass. Already, the intake of HMB caused a reduced increase in body mass. HMB supplementation decreased the fat mass and provided an increase in fat free mass. The combined intake of creatine with HMB seems to have a great influence on the body composition of basketball players.

In basketball, as already mentioned, we have no interest in developing high levels of hypertrophy as it happens with people who practice bodybuilding.

However, during the season, the strength and conditioning coach must control the muscularity index of his players by obtaining appropriate somatotype values (Vretaros, 2003; Vretaros, 2015).

>>MAXIMUM STRENGTH

Maximum strength receives the title of pure strength according to some authors in the field of sports training (Zakharov, 1992). However, this may not be the most appropriate term.

Bompa & Haff (2012) refer to the athlete's neuromuscular system's ability to generate a maximum voluntary contraction as maximum strength.

For Weineck (2003) the maximum strength can be considered as the maximum available strength that the athlete has to be able to generate a voluntary contraction in a situation of maximum effort.

In the view of Zatsiorsky & Kraemer, (2008) the maximum strength of great magnitude that can be achieved in a motor task is called the maximum maximorum force.

The maximum strength seen from the perspective of the central nervous system is related to the activation of the muscle fibers involved in the respective movement, that is, the intramuscular and intermuscular coordination (Zatsiorsky & Kraemer, 2008).

When we ask ourselves about maximum strength in a training program, the literature seems to show that it is the neural factors together with the type of muscle fiber and the size of the cross-sectional area that govern its actions (McArdle et al, 2011; Zatsiorsky & Kraemer , 2008).

Linked to the concept of maximum strength, we have identified two types of strength that help to better understand this type of manifestation of strength. They are: absolute strength and relative strength.

Bompa & Haff (2012) explain that absolute strength is linked to the amount of strength that can be generated regardless of the athlete's body weight. In contrast, the relative strength would be the ratio between the maximum strength of an athlete and the direct relationship with his body mass.

Let's imagine that we have two basketball players: athlete A and athlete B. During a test of maximum load in the squat, player A who weighs 80 kilos manages to lift 180 kilos. In contrast, player B who weighs 92 kilos lifts the same 180 kilos.

We can say with these results that the absolute strength of the two players is identical: 180kg !!! However, the relative strength of the players measured by the relative strength index (RSI) is different… Player A has a relative strength index of 2.25 and in player B the value is 1.95

Player A who has less body weight (80kg) lifted the same weight as player B who has higher body weight (92kg). Therefore, we can conclude that the levels of relative strength in player A are higher than those of player B.

In training that seeks to acquire maximum strength, target zones based on 1RM (a maximum repetition) are usually used to work up to muscle failure. However, Zourdos et al, (2016) advocate that perhaps this is not a more appropriate strategy for the development of strength. The authors suggest a scale of repetitions in reserve as to be used as a strategy for self-regulation of loads, based on the feedback provided by the athlete.

Freitas (2019) reveals that in training aimed at maximum strength for basketball, heavy loads have been used, as the maximum strength levels obtained by the players directly affect the acquisition of maximum power.

Ratamess (2015) describes a type of training linked to maximum strength: training at supra-maximal intensity. This type of training must be carefully planned so as not to incur the risk of injury or unnecessary overload on the player's locomotor system.

The supra-maximal strength training is used in the final stages of the training cycles, a time when the peak in the development of maximum strength is to be reached (Ratamess, 2015). Some techniques that include supra-maximal strength training, namely: forced repetitions, negative repetitions, partial range of motion training, among others.

Another dictate in the literature is that maximum strength training in basketball serves as a pre-requisite for the development of explosive strength (power).

According to Zatsiorky & Kraemer (2008) and Haff & Nimphius, (2012) the athlete must be able to lift 2.0 to 2.5 times his/her body weight in the squat before performing power training involving plyometrics for lower limbs, for example, drop jump.

The maximum strength training is marked by loads that involve great mechanical tension, markedly high (> 85% 1 RM) and low number of repetitions (4–6), with long periods of pause (~ 3–5 minutes) (Krzysztofik et al, 2019).

Due to the use of high loads in the training of maximum strength, Platonov (2008) reveals that there ends up a high activation of the neural system, making it impossible to observe significant increases in muscle mass.

McQuilliam et al, (2020) warn that increases in maximum strength with no gains in muscle mass, could be interesting for athletes who move their body mass at high speeds, for example in sprints and jumps, very common tasks in basketball.

Abdelkrim et al, (2010) compared the maximum strength of basketball players in three different categories: under-18, under-20 and senior. The exercises used to measure the maximum load were the bench press and squat. In the 1RM of the bench press the values found were: under-18 (74.7 kg), under-20 (76.7 kg), and in the senior (87.7 kg). In the 1RM of the squat the values found were: under-18 (183 kg), under-20 (183.3 kg) and senior (201.5 kg). They concluded that the results presented were favorable to higher levels of maximum strength in the senior category.

In the investigation by Čabarkapa et al, (2020) levels of maximum strength of the lower limbs were compared in basketball players of three levels: NBA, professional and university. The maximum load test was the squat. The average results found in the 1RM in the squat were: NBA (153.3 kg), professional (144.5 kg), and university student (133.1 kg). The authors report the importance of maximum strength of lower limbs in basketball to predict future career of college players.

In basketball, in a program duly periodized throughout the season, there must be constant cycles of maximum strength preceding the transition to power training (Zatsiorsky & Kraemer, 2008; Ratames, 2015; Bompa & Haff, 2012; Newton & Kraemer, 2015).

>>POWER (EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH)

The North American sports scientist Mike Young once posted on his twitter the following sentence: “Maximum strength is important, but power is what wins games…”

Well, that said, the power can be expressed in the following mathematical equation: Power = Force x Speed \ Time (Ribas, 2009).

In short, this means that power is the result of force applied at high speed in the shortest possible time.

In sport, we can refer to power as the athlete's muscle capacity to produce joint torque at high speeds. In fact, at extremely high speeds (in milliseconds).

A typical example for basketball: the vertical jump. The North Americans call the vertical jump a triple extension (ankle, knee and hip).

During a vertical jump, if the player is able to apply muscle power by means of a high speed of joint torque in the segments of the ankle, knee and hip, we will have a vertical impulse of significant height ...

So much so, that the tests to measure the explosive strength (power) of lower limbs (squat jump, countermovement jump, Abalakov jump test, etc.), use the height reached in the vertical jump as a power parameter ...

Heishman et al, (2019) warn that the different types of vertical jumps are valid field tests widely used for monitoring muscle power, neuromuscular system behavior, fatigue assessment, risk of injuries, asymmetries between limbs, landing technique, etc.

Ratamess (2015) recalls that in the formula of power two components stand out: strength and speed. Therefore, these components can be worked on to develop explosive strength.

Based on the observation of the force-velocity curve, we can consider how to properly develop the athletes' power.

In power training we work at both ends of the force-velocity curve. On the left side of the curve, we would develop power with high loads and slow movements. On the right side of the curve, power is emphasized with light to moderate loads and high movement speeds (Ratamess, 2015).

When low loads performed at high speeds are used in power training, inhibitory deceleration is required and the activation of antagonists tends to be minimized (Ribas, 2009).

However, when reflecting on the left side of the force-velocity curve, maximum loads are handled at reduced speeds, in order to make maximum power possible (Newton & Kraemer, 2015). The same authors report that an athlete cannot achieve high standards of power without first being strong enough, as there is a degree of correlation between maximum strength and activation of explosive strength. If the athlete's maximum strength levels are low, his or her ability to generate power decreases considerably.

According to this line of reasoning, McQuilliam et al, (2020) emphasize that it is relevant to develop a stable base of maximum strength before working on muscle power.

There is a degree of correlation (r=0.719) between maximum strength and peak power (Haff & Nimphius, 2012).

It is well documented in the literature that basketball players need to generate high levels of maximum strength in a short period of time, that is, muscle power (Ahmed et al, 2019). These manifestations can be observed in the high speeds employed by the players and in the agility in court during a match.

Tibana et al, (2017) describe that in neuromuscular power, the parameters of strength\time suffer an inverse relationship, since the maximum strength and the maximum speed are located at opposite ends.

High rates of velocity in the execution of movements can be obtained through the high portion of the force-velocity curve, which is called the rate of force development (RFD). RFD indicates the speed at which strength develops (Bompa & Haff, 2012).

Suchomel & Comfort (2018) report that RFD is related to the change in strength divided by the change in execution time. Simply put, RFD allows the player to produce strength quickly in time-limited motor tasks. For example, an explosive jump to block the opponent.

Newton & Kraemer, (2015) argue that in order to train RFD for muscle power, heavy loads tend to be inefficient in well-trained athletes. However, the use of plyometric and ballistic techniques, among others, that allow the generation of force quickly are more convenient.

Haff & Nimphius, (2012) explains that muscle contraction times between 50–250 milliseconds are associated with explosive movements (jumps, accelerations, etc.).

Among the diversity of methods for power training, Olympic lifting techniques (snatch, clean and jerk, and their derivatives) emerge as operational strategies. In the view of Newton & Kraemer, (2015) the Olympic liftings allow for an increasing acceleration throughout the propulsive phase of the movement, being considered an interesting foundation for power gains.

Thus, we can speculate that the different Olympic lifting techniques provide a positive transfer to the specific explosive motor actions performed in basketball (McQuilliam et al, 2020; Zatsiorky & Kraemer, 2008; Newton & Kraemer, 2015)

In the investigation by McQuilliam et al, (2020), the authors report that, from a biomechanical point of view, the movements performed in Olympic lifting techniques are kinematically aligned with the propelling characteristics of the vertical jump.

Some other methodologies used for power training: plyometrics, ballistic training, contrast training, complex training, etc.

In basketball, Shelling & Torres-Ronda, (2016) show two important examples to understand the real importance of power in players. Accelerations and jumps, which require the combination of two essential variables for muscle power: strength and speed. According to the authors, the mention of force-velocity curve, power-speed curve or load-speed curve is nothing more than the application of force in the shortest possible time.

Haff & Nimphius, (2012) show that neuromuscular power differs according to the level of the athlete. We can say that well-trained senior athletes would have a higher power level than athletes from lower divisions.

In the research by Pehar et al, (2017) basketball players from the first and second division were compared in power tests (standing broad jump, countermovement jump, reactive strength index and repeated reactive strength ability). In the results, significant differences were found in the muscle power values favoring the first division players.

A natural way to develop power in basketball is by contrast training. The characteristic of contrast training is the combined use of heavy loads with light loads to enhance explosive neuromuscular adaptations.

Román et al, (2018) studied the effects of contrast training on young basketball players (pre-pubertal stage). The duration of the program was 10 weeks (2 times per week). Contrast training included isometric exercises and plyometrics. The following tests were used for analysis: muscle power (squat jump, countermovement jump, and drop jump). speed (sprint of 25 meters) and agility (T-test). The experimental group that underwent contrast training showed substantially better results than the control group.

Among the aforementioned methodologies, plyometrics is a resource widely used by strength and conditioning coaches to improve the explosive strength of basketball players.

Bossi (2011) argues that plyometric work involves a quick transition from the eccentric muscle contraction regime to the concentric regime, in which the kinetic energy is converted into elastic tension potential.

Plyometrics is nothing more than the so-called stretch-shortening cycle (SSC). Zatsiorsky & Kraemer (2008) explain that several movements of human action consist of alternating cycles of eccentric phases (stretching) and concentric phases (shortening), which end up allowing an increase in the production of muscle power and mechanical strength.

As announced by Bompa & Haff (2012), SSC occurs due to the storage of potential elastic energy during the eccentric contraction regime, activating the stretching reflex and optimizing the powerful muscular action.

An effective plyometric training must take into account some basic parameters: 1)- muscle pre-activation properly programmed before the eccentric action, 2)- performing the eccentric action quickly and 3)- immediate transition from the eccentric to the concentric action (Luna et al, 2020).

In plyometrics, there is a relevant presence of the eccentric component, which is a type of muscle contraction regime typical used by basketball players in the performance of their motor tasks, namely: changes of direction, decelerations, jump landings, etc. (Sousa, 2017) .

Arazi & Asadi (2011) compared two types of training for plyometrics: aquatic plyometrics versus land plyometrics. A group of junior basketball players was used in the study. The duration of the program was eight weeks (3 times per week). The players were tested pre and post at speed (36.5-m and 60-m sprint) and at maximum load (1RM in the leg press). At the end of the program, in both training groups (aquatic versus land), there were improvements in speed and maximum strength without statistical differences between groups.

In the research by Ozen et al, (2020) junior basketball players performed a plyometric program on two different surfaces: sand versus wooden flooring. The duration of the program was six weeks (3 times per week). The players were evaluated on power (vertical jump, horizontal jump), agility (box agility) and speed (30-m sprint). In the results, some significant differences were found: the two types of surfaces improved the power values of the lower limbs (vertical jump and horizontal jump). However, speed and agility were able to show better results in the plyometric performed on the sand surface.

In an interesting study, Khlifa et al, (2010) compared two types of plyometric programs: traditional plyometrics versus plyometrics with additional load (equivalent to 10–11% of body mass). Tunisia's professional basketball players performed the plyometric program for seven weeks (2 times per week in the first three weeks and 3 times per week in the last four weeks). The power tests used were the squat jump, countermovement jump, and 5-jump test. In the results, higher power values were found in the group submitted to plyometry with additional load.

In junior women's basketball, Meszler & Váczi (2019) verified the effects of a seven-week plyometric program on the strength of the knee flexors\extensors (isokinetic dynamometry), agility (T-test), balance (stabilometer) and power ( vertical jump). The results found a decrease in the power tests (vertical jump). In the tests of agility, balance and strength of knee flexors, there was no significant change. However, only the knee extensor strength test showed substantial improvements. The authors attribute these negative results to the high volume of plyometric training, and the large number of games in the season, which directly influenced performance.

Plyometrics assists in the agility gains of basketball players by improving the speed of changes of direction. In this regard, Cherni et al, (2019) studied the effects of eight weeks of plyometric training in female basketball players on agility using the speed of changes of direction in the t-test as a parameter. In the pre-post-test evaluation, the experimental group was able to significantly improve the speed of change of direction in the t-test (+ 4.0%, p≤0.001).

The same researchers report that the gains in speed in the change of direction in the movements of the basketball players through plyometrics, can be explained in the obtained neural adaptations; such as an increase in the speed of nerve conduction and also a reduction in the time of muscle activation.

Boone & Bourgis (2013) measured the explosive strength values of lower limbs in professional basketball players of the Belgium using the squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ). The players were compared according to the tactical position exercised on the court. In the results, the centers showed low values in the two types of jumps (SJ and CMJ) when compared with the point-guards, shooting-guards, and small-forwards. At the peak power of these same jumps, power-forwards and centers performed better than point-guards and shooting-guards.

In a comparative investigation, Gonzalez et al (2012) analyzed neuromuscular power in female basketball players (starters) and reserves (non-starters). Among the variables studied, the peak power in the vertical jump deserves mention. According to the authors, the starting players who have more playing time compared to the reserve players during the season, managed to improve the peak power in the vertical jump (~ 5.04%) due to the additional time on the court in the matches.

Moreira et al, (2004) studied muscle power in professional basketball players submitted to strength training using the block periodization model. The bicyclic program consisted of the first macrocycle at 23 weeks and the second macrocycle at 19 weeks. Vertical jump and horizontal jump tests were evaluated. The results showed that the periodization in blocks provided a long lasting effect of training. However, the competition loads caused different effects in the power tests (vertical jump and horizontal jump), requiring further studies for its real understanding.

Short-term plyometric training appears to have positive effects. In this sense, Ramachandran & Pradahan (2014) implemented a two-week (3 times per week) plyometric program in professional basketball players of both sexes. The intervention included dynamic stretching exercises preceding the plyometric exercises. At the end of the study, there were significant improvements in the height of the vertical jump and in the agility (T-test) of the players.

In a study with semi-professional basketball players, Freitas (2019) analyzed the acute effect of two strength training protocols: 1) - maximum strength and 2) - muscle power. Physical performance variables (CMJ, horizontal jump, repeated sprints, t-test and bench press power) and a technical skill variable (3-point shooting) were analyzed. In the results, there was a significant decrease in all variables studied in the maximum strength protocol when compared to the muscle power protocol. It was concluded that in situations where there is a need for physical training prior to technical-tactical training or a game, the muscle power protocol seems to be the least affected by the effects of acute fatigue.

As reported in maximum strength training, the muscle power of basketball players varies according to their category, with senior players at higher levels compared to players in the lower divisions (Abdelkrim et al, 2010; Čabarkapa et al, 2020).

Some studies indicate that there is an “optimal zone” for the development of power (Haff & Nimphius, 2012; Loturco et al, 2015; Loturco et al, 2015b). It is called the “optimum power load”, which is a load that can generate a more effective stimulus for the growth of neuromuscular power.

According to Freitas (2019) the optimum power load is a properly selected load that produces a large peak of power because it coincides with the maximum point of the parabolic function obtained in relation with the force-velocity curve.

The same author claims that the optimum power load is determined based on the maximum repetition percentage of the load (% 1RM) and must be individualized for each player.

>>POWER ENDURANCE

Power endurance is characterized by seeking to maintain power levels for extended periods of time (Vretaros, 2015).

Power endurance would allow the basketball player to perform his motor actions for long periods without the negative interference of fatigue.

However, Arede et al (2020) reveals that in the power endurance training protocols, the type of muscle fiber recruited is fast, which has high sensitivity to fatigue due to the low myoglobin content, few mitochondria, and insignificant amount of capillaries blood vessels, which end up interfering negatively in the restoration of the muscle power production capacity.

For example, a basketball player jumping vertically 51.0 cm in the first quarter of the match, if not properly trained in the power endurance, could lose substantially the height of the jump in the fourth quarter. However, if this same player carries out training that involves power endurance he will be able to make the vertical jump with small losses in the final quarter of the match.

Another example would be the execution of a shoulder pass from one end to the other end of the court. Imagine two players exchanging these passes for a certain period of time. The player who, after a few minutes, loses the power to launch the pass and is unable to complete the pass to the other side of the court, would have his power endurance compromised ...

The basketball player's athletic ability to maintain different motor actions at high intensity in matches is dependent on a component of power endurance (Arede et al, 2020).

Other motor actions used in basketball require power endurance. such as: accelerations, decelerations, changes of direction, passes, shooting, etc.

Plyometric training is a methodological resource widely used for the development of power endurance.

Cheng et al, (2003) comment that the height and speed in performing repeated jumps are valuable tasks in basketball. The authors investigated a plyometric program combined with strength training in basketball players. The duration of the program was eight weeks (4–5 times per week). The players were divided into two groups: intervention group and control group. Power endurance was assessed using repeated jumps. In the results, the intervention group improved significantly in the pre-post intervention (42 jumps to 45.6 jumps, +3.63) and the control group reduced the values (46.8 jumps to 45 jumps, -1.88)

One of the ways to train power endurance is to perform blocks of several series through short repetitive explosive movements with incomplete pauses (Arede et al, 2020). According to the same authors, this type of power endurance training creates several adaptations to the fatigue mechanisms (cardiovascular, mechanical and\or neuromuscular).

In the infographic below, I show a chart with a summary of the different manifestations of strength and their peculiarities in terms of sets, repetitions and load intensity.

>>Particularities of Strength Training in Basketball Players

Basketball players have a high stature when compared to the normal population of the non-athletes. This fact, during the prescription of strength training, to be taken into account.

For example, Boyle (2015) and also Sato & Shimokochi, (2017) report that during the squat exercise in basketball players, the strength and conditioning coach must pay attention to the parallel alignment of the femur in relation to the ground in the execution of the movement. Or, use a box to determine the ideal squat depth. This is due to the size of the femur in individuals with above average height.

Another issue concerns overhead exercises (Baltaci et al, 2004; Boyle, 2015; Boyle, 2018). Because basketball players perform many motor actions in overhead matches, such as throwing. In this regard, when it is necessary to perform exercises that involve vertical pushing movements, such as military press, the loads must be properly dosed in terms of volume, intensity and biomechanical efficiency so that they do not incur the appearance of injuries (acute or chronic).

Still on the shoulder of basketball players, Patel & Horne, (2017) recall that the vertical pulling movements cause a natural rotation of the humerus internally, which can cause neuromuscular injuries and\or dysfunctions.

The lumbar spine region is the other anatomical site of injury involvement in basketball players (Drakos et al, 2010; Weiss et al, 2017). For this reason, a well-developed core workout would avoid problems in the short and long term, such as low back pain and even herniated discs (Patel & Home, 2017). In addition, when the players are going to perform standing exercises, which in some way accentuates the lumbar curvature, such as snatching or clean and jerk, the load parameters and the quality of the movement must be strictly monitored.

Attention should also be given to players' ankles, as the prevalence of ankle injuries is very common (Castro, 2005). Exercises to strengthen the ankle/foot joint, as well as improvements in central and local stabilization, help a lot to reduce the risk of injuries in this joint segment.

The basketball players' knee is another location of injuries. Especially in female athletes due to physiological and anatomical factors (ligament laxity, Q angle, etc.) that contribute to the appearance of injuries to the anterior cruciate ligament (Oliphant & Drawbert, 1996). The biomechanical landing technique in basketball players of both sexes must be constantly improved to reduce the risk of problems in the complex knee joint (Leppänen et al, 2017; Struzik et al, 2014; McCormick, 2012).

In young basketball players, whose orientation is usually focused specifically on technical-tactical development, strength training is important to produce a reduction in chronic injuries (overuse) due to high volumes of competition and insufficient level of physical fitness ( Lloyd et al, 2016; McQuilliam et al, 2020). In fact, in this population of athletes, chronic and sustainable adaptations of strength are more beneficial than acute performance gains (Lloyd et al, 2016).

>>Some Considerations About Strength Training in Basketball

In this topic, I intend to include some basic considerations that should be taken into account by the fitness coach when designing strength training programs aimed at basketball players:

1)- Start the progression of the exercises with the following rule: from simple exercise to complex exercise, and from general exercise to specific exercise;

2)- Multiarticular exercises must be performed before uniarticular exercises

3)- Multiple sets provide greater strength gains than single sets;

4)- First develop stability then mobility - (central and distal stability + central + distal mobility);

5)- The exercises must be worked on the different planes of movement (sagittal, frontal and coronal);

6)- When training the core, remember to improve the anti-rotation, anti-extension, anti-flexion and anti- lateral flexion;

7)- Remember to develop the basic movement patterns: pull horizontally, push horizontally, pull vertically, push vertically;

8)- Before prescribing strength exercises, take into account the amount of time available to perform the tasks;

9)- Before prescribing the strength program exercises, take into account the available equipment;

10)- In a duly periodized program, observe the session from the previous day and the session from the following day to check for possible negative interferences;

11)- Closed kinetic chain exercises can be used, as well as open kinetic chain exercises;

12)- Respect the specificity of basketball by prescribing exercises that allow a functional transfer to basketball actions and movement patterns;

13)- Respect your athlete's biological individuality;

14)- Respect the specificity of the tactical function that the player performs on the court;

15)- Respect the principle of variability, if you don't want to see stagnant force performance;

16)- Know how to classify your player as beginner, intermediate or advanced in the prescription of strength training;

17)- In youth players, maturation age is more important than chronological age when prescribing strength training;

18)- Evaluate your basketball player before setting up the program, so that after a few microcycles\mesocycles check if there has been an evolution;

19)- Evaluate your basketball player to check for any motor dysfunction that deserves to be corrected during the strength program;

20)- Control the players' ego in the weight room; because it is worth more a strength exercise with a low load well performed technically, than an exercise done with high loads and poorly performed movement;

21)- Always be supervising your players in the weight room to correct the technique of executing the movement, and also check the safety of the tasks;

22)- Know how to rationally measure the variables of volume, intensity, density and complexity of training loads;

23)- In game congestion periods, conducting microdosing training sessions is an effective strategy for maintaining or acquiring strength;

24)- The off-season period is a real opportunity to perform strength and power training;

25)- The daily history of monitoring the training of a player serves as a fundamental instrument to correctly interpret the loads applied;

26)- Remember that the goal of the program for basketball players is to develop functional strength to improve performance and not aesthetics;

27)- Reflect on the development of strength in the short, medium and long term, given that each specific period of the season has different characteristics and objectives

>>FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

- Modern basketball requires strength training that is well oriented to its players, because in addition to improving physical fitness, it manages to prevent the risk of injury by improving movement patterns;

- Periodizing strength training in basketball is necessary, given that each period of the season has different peculiarities;

- Respect for the specificity of the sport, the player's biological individuality, and his tactical position on the court, determine success in a strength training program;

- This manuscript is not intended to exhaust the topic of strength training in basketball, given that the subject is relatively broad and complex, to be discussed in a simple article.

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