[en] The lattice defects in GaAsN grown by chemical beam epitaxy on GaAs 311B and GaAs 10A toward [110] were characterized and discussed by using deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and on the basis of temperature dependence of the junction capacitances (C_J). In one hand, GaAsN films grown on GaAs 311B and GaAs 10A showed n-type and p-type conductivities, respectively although the similar and simultaneous growth conditions. This result is indeed in contrast to the common known effect of N concentration on the type of conductivity, since the surface 311B showed a significant improvement in the incorporation of N. Furthermore, the temperature dependence of C_J has shown that GaAs 311B limits the formation of N-H defects. In the other hand, the energy states in the forbidden gap of GaAsN were obtained. Six electron traps, E1 to E6, were observed in the DLTS spectrum of GaAsN grown on GaAs 311B, with apparent activation energies of 0.02, 0.14, 0.16, 0.33, 0.48, and 0.74 eV below the bottom edge of the conduction band, respectively. In addition, four hole traps, H1 to H4, were observed in the DLTS spectrum of GaAsN grown on GaAs 10A, with energy depths of 0.13, 0.20, 0.39, and 0.52 eV above the valence band maximum of the alloy, respectively. Hence, the surface morphology of the GaAs substrate was found to play a key factor role in clarifying the electrical properties of GaAsN grown by CBE

[en] The nitrogen doping effects in C₆₀ films by RF plasma source was investigated, and it was found that the nitrogen ion bombardment broke up C₆₀ molecules and changed them into amorphous carbon. Based on these results, formation of C₆₀/amorphous carbon superlattice structure was proposed. The periodic structure of the resulted films was confirmed by XRD measurements, as the preliminary results of fabrication of the superlattice structure

[en] The N–H related acceptor defects in GaAsN grown by chemical beam epitaxy (CBE) are studied by hydrogen isotopes, H and D. When the films are grown by a conventional arsenic source, deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) reveals two energy levels at 0.11 and 0.19 eV above the valence band. These levels were considered to act as a double acceptor in the literature. When the films are grown by a deuterated arsenic source, new signals appear in DLTS spectra at 0.15 and 0.23 eV. This indicates that the new signals are originated from D-related defects. The energy differences between 0.15 and 0.11 eV, and that between 0.23 and 0.19 eV are same (0.04 eV). Although these energy levels become deeper with increasing the growth temperature, the energy differences are almost constant independent of the growth condition. In addition, the intensity ratios of the peaks at 0.15 (0.23) eV to that at 0.11 (0.19) eV have a good correlation with the isotopic concentration ratio of D to H in the grown films. Therefore, we conclude that the energy differences and intensity ratios of the DLTS peaks occur due to the structural change from N–H to N−D in the same type of defect, and that this acceptor is an N–H related defect. - Highlights: • The DLTS signals at 0.11 and 0.19 eV originate from a double acceptor. • Growth by D-TDMAAs: new defects that contain D are generated at 0.15 and 0.23 eV. • Energy differences between 0.15 (0.23) eV and 0.11 (0.19) eV: same, independent of T_G. • Intensity ratios of peaks at 0.15 (0.23) eV to that at 0.11 (0.19) eV ≈ [D]/{[H]+[D]}. • Therefore, this acceptor is related to H

[en] We have been studying concentrator multi-junction solar cells under Japanese Innovative Photovoltaic R and D program since FY2008. InGaAsN is one of appropriate materials for 4-or 5-junction solar cell configuration because this material can be lattice-matched to GaAs and Ge substrates. However, present InGaAsN single-junction solar cells have been inefficient because of low minority-carrier lifetime due to N-related recombination centers and low carrier mobility due to alloy scattering and non-homogeneity of N. This paper presents our major results in the understanding of majority and minority carrier traps in GaAsN grown by chemical beam epitaxy and their relationships with the poor electrical properties of the materials.

[en] Silicon solar cells are the most established solar cell technology and are expected to dominate the market in the near future. As state-of-the-art silicon solar cells are approaching the Shockley–Queisser limit, stacking silicon solar cells with other photovoltaic materials to form multi-junction devices is an obvious pathway to further raise the efficiency. However, many challenges stand in the way of fully realizing the potential of silicon tandem solar cells because heterogeneously integrating silicon with other materials often degrades their qualities. Recently, above or near 30% silicon tandem solar cell has been demonstrated, showing the promise of achieving high-efficiency and low-cost solar cells via silicon tandem. This paper reviews the recent progress of integrating solar cell with other mainstream solar cell materials. The first part of this review focuses on the integration of silicon with III–V semiconductor solar cells, which is a long-researched topic since the emergence of III–V semiconductors. We will describe the main approaches—heteroepitaxy, wafer bonding and mechanical stacking—as well as other novel approaches. The second part introduces the integration of silicon with polycrystalline thin-film solar cells, mainly perovskites on silicon solar cells because of its rapid progress recently. We will also use an analytical model to compare the material qualities of different types of silicon tandem solar cells and project their practical efficiency limits. (topical review)

[en] The hole traps associated with high background doping in p-type GaAsN grown by chemical beam epitaxy are studied based on the changes of carrier concentration, junction capacitance, and hole traps properties due to the annealing. The carrier concentration was increased dramatically with annealing time, based on capacitance–voltage (C–V) measurement. In addition, the temperature dependence of the junction capacitance (C–T) was increased rapidly two times. Such behavior is explained by the thermal ionization of two acceptor states. These acceptors are the main cause of high background doping in the film, since the estimated carrier concentration from C–T results explains the measured carrier concentration at room temperature using C–V method. The acceptor states became shallower after annealing, and hence their structures are thermally unstable. Deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) showed that the HC2 hole trap was composed of two signals, labeled HC21 and HC22. These defects correspond to the acceptor levels, as their energy levels obtained from DLTS are similar to those deduced from C–T. The capture cross sections of HC21 and HC22 are larger than those of single acceptors. In addition, their energy levels and capture cross sections change in the same way due to the annealing. This tendency suggests that HC21 and HC22 signals originate from the same defect which acts as a double acceptor

[en] We report photoluminescence (PL) studies of both as-grown and electron-irradiated GaAsN epilayers on (311)A/B and (100) GaAs substrates. A long room-temperature (RT) PL lifetime, as well as an enhanced N incorporation, is observed in (311)B GaAsN epilayers as compared with (311)A and (100) samples. There is no direct correlation between the RT PL lifetime and the emission intensity from Ga vacancy complex detected at low temperature. The lifetime damage coefficient is relatively low for (311)B GaAsN. The irradiation-induced nonradiative recombination defects are suggested to be N- and/or As-related according to a geometrical analysis based on the tetrahedral coordination of GaAsN crystal.

[en] Highlights: ► The cause of high background doping was confirmed and characterized. ► The current–voltage characteristics deviate from the thermionic emission. ► The recombination current is attributed to a hole trap (E_V + 0.52 eV). ► The hole trap (E_V + 0.52 eV) was confirmed by DLTS measurements. -- Abstract: The temperature dependence of capacitance–voltage (C–V) and current voltage (I–V) characteristics were used to study the cause of high background doping and the underlying current transport mechanisms in GaAsN Schottky diode grown by chemical beam epitaxy (CBE). In one hand, a nitrogen-related sigmoid increase of junction capacitance and ionized acceptor concentration was observed in the temperature range 70–100 K and was attributed to the thermal ionization of a nitrogen–hydrogen-related deep acceptor-state, with thermal activation energy of approximately 0.11 eV above the valence band maximum (VBM) of GaAsN. This acceptor state is mainly responsible for the high background doping in unintentionally doped GaAsN grown by CBE. On the other hand, the I–V characteristics at different temperatures were found to deviate from the well known pure thermionic-emission mechanism. Based on their fitting at each temperature, the recombination current in the space charge region of GaAsN Schottky diode was mainly attributed to a hole trap, localized at 0.51 eV above the VBM. Given the accuracy of measurements, this result was confirmed by deep level transient spectroscopy measurements. Nevertheless, considering the Shockley–Read–Hall model of generation-recombination, the recombination activity of this defect was quantified and qualified to be weak compared with the markedly degradation of minority carrier lifetime in GaAsN material

[en] A nitrogen-related electron trap (E1), located approximately 0.33 eV from the conduction band minimum of GaAsN grown by chemical beam epitaxy, was confirmed by investigating the dependence of its density with N concentration. This level exhibits a high capture cross section compared with that of native defects in GaAs. Its density increases significantly with N concentration, persists following post-thermal annealing, and was found to be quasi-uniformly distributed. These results indicate that E1 is a stable defect that is formed during growth to compensate for the tensile strain caused by N. Furthermore, E1 was confirmed to act as a recombination center by comparing its activation energy with that of the recombination current in the depletion region of the alloy. However, this technique cannot characterize the electron-hole (e-h) recombination process. For that, double carrier pulse deep level transient spectroscopy is used to confirm the non-radiative e-h recombination process through E1, to estimate the capture cross section of holes, and to evaluate the energy of multi-phonon emission. Furthermore, a configuration coordinate diagram is modeled based on the physical parameters of E1. -- Research Highlights: → Double carrier pulse DLTS method confirms the existence of SRH center. → The recombination center in GaAsN depends on nitrogen concentration. → Minority carrier lifetime in GaAsN is less than 1 ns. → A non-radiative recombination center exits in GaAsN.

[en] We compared the N incorporation and optical emission in GaAsN epilayers grown on (3 1 1)A/B and (1 0 0) GaAs substrates using a chemical beam expitaxy system. Over the growth-temperature range 420 -460 ⁰C, N composition was enhanced 2-3 times for the epitaxial growth following [3 1 1]B orientation, but reduced in the [3 1 1]A direction. Both (3 1 1) A and B substrates are effective to weaken the photoluminescence emission from the deep levels as compared with the (1 0 0) plane. The deep-level emission can be further suppressed for all substrates by increasing the growth temperature and/or performing postgrowth annealing. However, in contrast to the continuous increase in total emission intensities of (3 1 1)B sample, a decreasing tendency was recorded for (3 1 1)A with the rise in growth temperature. The optimum growth temperature and annealing conditions for better crystal quality were found to depend on the growth orientation and surface polarity. These results present a potential approach to improving the N incorporation efficiency in Ga(In)AsN materials through adopting high-index substrates such as (3 1 1)B.