Availability Cascade
- Meaning: A self-reinforcing process by which a belief gains more credibility as more people publicly endorse it.
- Explanation: As more people adopt and spread an idea, it becomes accepted regardless of its accuracy.
- Example: Misconceptions about health trends, like fad diets, becoming widely believed due to repeated mentions.
- Coined by: Cass Sunstein and Timur Kuran in 1999.
Availability Heuristic
- Meaning: Making decisions based on how easily examples come to mind, often leading to overestimations of likelihood.
- Example: After watching news about a plane crash, a person might overestimate the risk of flying, believing it to be more common than it is.
- Coined by: Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, who explored cognitive biases and heuristics in human judgment.
Actor-Observer Bias
- Meaning: The tendency to attribute others' actions to their character while attributing one’s own actions to situational factors.
- Explanation: This bias occurs because people have more context about their own actions but rely on limited observations of others.
- Example: If you’re late to work, you might blame traffic, but if a colleague is late, you may think they’re irresponsible.
- Coined by: Edward E. Jones and Richard Nisbett in 1971, in their study of social attribution.
Anchoring Bias
- Meaning: A cognitive bias where the first piece of information (anchor) heavily influences subsequent decisions.
- Explanation: This bias often affects decision-making by creating a reference point that skews judgments.
- Example: In salary negotiations, the initial offer sets a reference point that heavily influences the final outcome.
- Coined by: Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in their work on heuristics and biases in the 1970s.
Attachment Theory
- Meaning: The theory that early relationships with caregivers shape one’s future relationships and social behaviour.
- Explanation: Secure attachment in childhood leads to healthier relationships in adulthood, while insecure attachment can lead to difficulties.
- Example: A child with secure attachment is likely to have positive relationships later in life.
- Coined by: John Bowlby in the 1950s, exploring the importance of caregiver-child bonds.
Availability Heuristic
- Meaning: Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.
- Explanation: This bias leads people to believe events are more common if they are easier to recall, even if they’re not.
- Example: After hearing about a plane crash, a person may overestimate the risk of air travel.
- Coined by: Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1973.
Backfire Effect
- Meaning: When contradictory evidence strengthens a person’s original beliefs.
- Explanation: People may cling more firmly to their beliefs after encountering information that challenges them.
- Example: A person becoming more convinced of a conspiracy theory after being presented with evidence debunking it.
- Coined by: Brendan Nyhan and Jason Reifler in 2010.
Barnum Effect
- Meaning: The tendency to believe vague, general statements are highly accurate for oneself.
- Explanation: People often see truth in general statements because they can interpret them in personal ways.
- Example: Feeling that a horoscope accurately describes your personality, even if it’s vague.
- Coined by: Paul Meehl in 1956, based on P.T. Barnum's quote about appealing to everyone.
Bystander Effect
- Meaning: The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in emergencies when others are present.
- Explanation: As group size increases, individuals feel less personal responsibility.
- Example: If someone collapses in a crowded street, people might not help, assuming someone else will.
- Coined by: John Darley and Bibb Latané in the 1960s, after the murder of Kitty Genovese.
Classical Conditioning
- Meaning: A learning process where an involuntary response becomes associated with a new stimulus.
- Explanation: By repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, a conditioned response is learned.
- Example: Pavlov’s dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell associated with food.
- Coined by: Ivan Pavlov in the 1890s, through his research on dogs.
Cognitive Dissonance
- Meaning: The discomfort experienced when one’s beliefs and behaviours are inconsistent.
- Explanation: This discomfort often leads to changes in beliefs or behaviours to reduce inconsistency.
- Example: A smoker may justify smoking by focusing on stress relief benefits, despite knowing the health risks.
- Coined by: Leon Festinger in 1957, studying the need for cognitive consistency.
Cognitive Load
- Meaning: The total amount of mental effort being used in working memory.
- Explanation: High cognitive load can impair learning and problem-solving as the brain becomes overwhelmed.
- Example: Trying to memorize a phone number while being distracted by a loud environment.
- Coined by: John Sweller in the 1980s, in the context of instructional design.
Cognitive Map
- Explanation: A mental representation of one’s physical environment.
- Example: Knowing the layout of one’s house even in the dark, without needing to see it.
- Coined by: Edward Tolman, in his work on spatial learning in animals.
Confirmation Bias
- Meaning: The tendency to favor information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.
- Explanation: This bias affects how people gather and interpret information, often ignoring contradictory evidence.
- Example: Someone who believes in a particular diet may only focus on studies supporting it, ignoring contrary findings.
- Coined by: Peter Wason in the 1960s, exploring human reasoning.
Conformity
- Meaning: Adjusting behaviour to align with group norms or expectations.
- Explanation: People often conform to avoid conflict or gain social approval.
- Example: A person might wear similar clothes to their friends to blend in.
- Coined by: Studied by Solomon Asch in the 1950s in his conformity experiments.
Counterfactual Thinking
- Meaning: Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes to events that have already happened.
- Explanation: People think about "what could have been" to make sense of outcomes or cope with disappointment.
- Example: After missing a bus, someone might think, “If only I had left earlier.”
- Coined by: Discussed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky as part of decision-making research in the 1980s.
Defense Mechanism
- Meaning: Unconscious strategies used to cope with anxiety and stress.
- Explanation: These mechanisms protect individuals from emotional distress.
- Example: Repression involves pushing distressing thoughts out of conscious awareness.
- Coined by: Sigmund Freud in the early 20th century.
Dunning-Kruger Effect
- Meaning: The phenomenon where people with low ability in a task overestimate their competence, while highly skilled individuals may underestimate their expertise.
- Explanation: This effect often leads to overconfidence among the unskilled and self-doubt among the skilled.
- Example: A novice cook may believe their cooking is restaurant quality, while a chef may constantly critique their own work.
- Coined by: David Dunning and Justin Kruger in 1999.
False Consensus Effect
- Meaning: Overestimating how much others share one’s beliefs or behaviours.
- Explanation: People assume their views are more common than they actually are.
- Example: A person who values fitness might assume most people also prioritize health.
- Coined by: Lee Ross and colleagues in 1977, while studying social perception.
Extrinsic Motivation
- Explanation: Engaging in behaviour to earn rewards or avoid punishment.
- Example: Studying hard to earn high grades rather than for personal interest.
- Coined by: Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, in studies on motivation.
Fixed-Interval Schedule
- Explanation: Reinforcing behaviour after a specific amount of time has passed.
- Example: Receiving a paycheck every two weeks, regardless of daily productivity.
- Coined by: B.F. Skinner, as part of his work on schedules of reinforcement.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
- Explanation: Reinforcing behaviour after a set number of responses.
- Example: A salesperson earns a bonus after every five sales, motivating them to meet the target.
- Coined by: B.F. Skinner, in his research on behaviour reinforcement.
Fixed vs. Growth Mindset
- Meaning: Beliefs about whether abilities are static (fixed) or improvable (growth).
- Explanation: A growth mindset promotes learning and resilience, while a fixed mindset limits personal development.
- Example: A student with a growth mindset believes they can improve with practice, while a fixed mindset leads to giving up.
- Coined by: Carol Dweck in the 2000s, through her work on motivation and mindset.
Flow State
- Explanation: Being completely immersed in an activity that is challenging yet enjoyable.
- Example: A musician loses track of time while composing, fully absorbed in the process.
- Coined by: Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, who researched optimal experiences.
Framing Effect
- Meaning: People’s decisions are influenced by how information is presented.
- Explanation: The same information can lead to different choices based on positive or negative framing.
- Example: People may prefer "90% fat-free" yogurt over yogurt labeled "10% fat."
- Coined by: Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in 1981.
Fundamental Attribution Error
- Meaning: The tendency to attribute others' actions to personality rather than situational factors.
- Explanation: This bias overlooks context, assuming behaviour reflects personal traits.
- Example: If someone cuts in line, we might assume they're rude rather than in a hurry.
- Coined by: Lee Ross in 1977, in his work on social cognition.
Groupthink
- Meaning: A phenomenon where group members prioritize harmony and consensus over critical thinking.
- Explanation: Groupthink discourages dissenting opinions, leading to poor decision-making.
- Example: A company board unanimously approving a flawed strategy without anyone raising objections.
- Coined by: Irving Janis in 1972.
Halo Effect
- Meaning: The tendency to let an overall impression of a person influence specific judgments about them.
- Explanation: A single positive trait or feature can shape perceptions, often leading to biased evaluations.
- Example: Assuming a well-dressed person is also intelligent and trustworthy.
- Coined by: Edward Thorndike in 1920, during his research on human assessment.
Hawthorne Effect
- Meaning: Individuals modify their behaviour in response to being observed.
- Explanation: This effect is often seen in workplace or research settings, where people perform better under scrutiny.
- Example: Employees increase productivity when they know they’re being monitored by management.
- Coined by: Derived from studies conducted at the Hawthorne Works factory in the 1920s and 1930s.
Hedonic Adaptation
- Explanation: The tendency to return to a stable level of happiness after positive or negative events.
- Example: Winning a lottery may bring temporary joy, but happiness levels eventually stabilize.
- Coined by: Brickman and Campbell, in research on happiness.
Intrinsic Motivation
- Explanation: Performing an activity for the inherent satisfaction it brings rather than for external rewards.
- Example: Reading a book because one enjoys learning, not for a grade.
- Coined by: Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, who studied self-determination theory.
Illusion of Control
- Meaning: The belief that one can control or influence outcomes that are largely determined by chance.
- Explanation: This illusion can lead to overconfidence and risk-taking behaviours.
- Example: A gambler feeling they can control the roll of dice or outcomes in a game of chance.
- Coined by: Ellen Langer in 1975, through her work on perception and judgment.
Illusory Correlation
- Meaning: The perception of a relationship between two variables when none exists.
- Explanation: This occurs when people associate two events based on coincidence or assumption, rather than evidence.
- Example: Believing that full moons are associated with increased crime, despite no scientific support.
- Coined by: David Hamilton and Robert Gifford in 1976.
In-Group Bias
- Meaning: Favoring members of one's own group over those in an out-group.
- Explanation: This bias can lead to preferential treatment and greater empathy for in-group members.
- Example: Supporting and empathizing more with one’s own sports team than with opponents.
- Coined by: Henri Tajfel, as part of Social Identity Theory in the 1970s.
Just-World Hypothesis
- Meaning: The belief that people get what they deserve, leading to victim-blaming in negative situations.
- Explanation: This belief stems from a desire to view the world as fair and just.
- Example: Assuming a person who was robbed must have been careless, rather than focusing on the perpetrator's actions.
- Coined by: Melvin Lerner in the 1960s, exploring justice and fairness perceptions.
. Law of Diminishing Returns
- Meaning: As one invests more resources in a given activity, the incremental benefits decrease over time.
- Explanation: More input doesn’t always lead to proportional improvement, as returns diminish with increased effort.
- Example: Studying for hours may help initially, but each additional hour brings less new knowledge.
- Coined by: Based on economic theories dating back to Thomas Malthus.
Learned Helplessness
- Meaning: A state where people or animals believe they have no control over outcomes, leading to passivity.
- Explanation: It develops from repeated exposure to uncontrollable events, causing a lack of motivation.
- Example: A student who repeatedly fails tests may stop trying to improve, feeling they cannot succeed.
- Coined by: Martin Seligman in 1967, through experiments with dogs.
Locus of Control
- Explanation: Belief that outcomes are either within one’s own control (internal) or determined by external factors.
- Example: A person with an internal locus believes their job success depends on their effort, while an external locus attributes it to luck or fate.
- Coined by: Julian Rotter, in his theory of social learning.
Loss Aversion
- Meaning: The tendency to prefer avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent gains.
- Explanation: This bias makes people more sensitive to potential losses than to potential gains.
- Example: The pain of losing $100 is greater than the pleasure of gaining $100.
- Coined by: Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in their Prospect Theory, 1979.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
- Meaning: A motivational model proposing five levels of human needs, from basic to self-fulfillment.
- Explanation: Needs range from physiological (e.g., food, shelter) to self-actualization (personal growth).
- Example: Employees must feel secure (safety needs) before focusing on career development (self-actualization).
- Coined by: Abraham Maslow in 1943.
Mere Exposure Effect
- Meaning: Increased exposure to a stimulus leads to greater liking of it.
- Explanation: Familiarity breeds fondness, influencing preferences and relationships.
- Example: A song becomes more enjoyable the more it is heard on the radio.
- Coined by: Robert Zajonc in 1968, exploring social and perceptual psychology.
Negative Reinforcement
- Explanation: Increasing behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus.
- Example: Wearing a seatbelt to stop a car’s alarm promotes wearing seatbelts regularly.
- Coined by: B.F. Skinner, in his research on behaviour modification.
Object Permanence
- Explanation: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they’re not visible.
- Example: Infants learn that a hidden toy still exists, a concept important for cognitive development.
- Coined by: Jean Piaget, in his studies on child development.
Observational Learning
- Explanation: Learning by observing and imitating others.
- Example: A child learns to say “thank you” after seeing their parents use it frequently.
- Coined by: Albert Bandura, who developed the social learning theory.
Operant Conditioning
- Explanation: Learning behaviour through rewards and punishments.
- Example: A child cleans their room to earn praise, reinforcing the behaviour.
- Coined by: B.F. Skinner, who studied behavioural reinforcement.
Optimism Bias
- Meaning: The tendency to believe that one is more likely to experience positive outcomes than others.
- Explanation: This bias can lead to unrealistic expectations and risk-taking behaviours.
- Example: Believing oneself less likely to get into a car accident, even with risky driving habits.
- Coined by: Neil Weinstein in 1980.
Ostrich Effect
- Meaning: Avoiding or ignoring potentially negative information, especially about one's finances or health.
- Explanation: This effect occurs when people prefer not to face possible negative outcomes, seeking temporary relief from worry.
- Example: Avoiding checking one’s bank account balance after overspending.
- Coined by: Galai and Sade in 2006, particularly in the context of financial decision-making.
Overconfidence Effect
- Meaning: The tendency to overestimate one's abilities or knowledge.
- Explanation: This effect can lead to poor decision-making due to exaggerated confidence.
- Example: Underestimating the difficulty of a test and not studying adequately.
- Coined by: Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1974.
Peak-End Rule
- Meaning: People judge an experience based on its most intense moment (peak) and its end, rather than the entire experience.
- Explanation: This bias influences how events are remembered and affects future decisions.
- Example: Remembering a vacation as wonderful because of a great last day, even if some days were less enjoyable.
- Coined by: Daniel Kahneman and Barbara Fredrickson in the early 1990s.
Placebo Effect
- Meaning: Improvement in a condition due to the belief in the efficacy of treatment, rather than the treatment itself.
- Explanation: Expectations of improvement lead to actual physical or psychological changes, despite receiving a non-active substance.
- Example: Feeling relief from a headache after taking a sugar pill, believing it to be medication.
- Coined by: The term originated in medical literature and has been extensively studied in clinical research.
Pluralistic Ignorance
- Explanation: This occurs when people misjudge others' beliefs, leading them to conform to what they mistakenly think is the majority view.
- Example: In a meeting, if no one raises objections to a proposal, each individual might assume everyone else supports it, even though many may have reservations.
- Coined by: Floyd H. Allport, who explored group dynamics and social behaviour.
Primacy Effect
- Meaning: The tendency to remember the first items in a list better than those that follow.
- Explanation: Items presented at the beginning of a sequence are more likely to be retained due to initial focus.
- Example: Remembering the first few items on a grocery list more vividly than the middle ones.
- Coined by: Hermann Ebbinghaus in his studies on memory in the late 19th century.
Projection Bias
- Meaning: The tendency to assume that others share similar thoughts, feelings, or behaviours as oneself.
- Explanation: This bias can lead to misunderstanding others, as we assume they react similarly to us.
- Example: Assuming a friend will enjoy a concert as much as you do because you both enjoy similar music.
- Coined by: Daniel Gilbert and Timothy Wilson in 2000.
Positive Reinforcement
- Explanation: Encouraging a behaviour by rewarding it.
- Example: Giving a pet a treat when it follows a command encourages it to obey more often.
- Coined by: B.F. Skinner, as part of his studies on operant conditioning.
Projection
- Explanation: Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.
- Example: Someone feeling hostile might accuse others of being angry, projecting their emotions onto them.
- Coined by: Sigmund Freud, in his theory of defense mechanisms.
Pygmalion Effect
- Meaning: Higher expectations lead to improved performance.
- Explanation: When people are expected to succeed, they often meet those expectations through increased effort.
- Example: Teachers expecting certain students to excel may give them more encouragement, improving their performance.
- Coined by: Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson in the 1960s, exploring educational psychology.
Reactance
- Meaning: A motivational reaction to resist pressures or restrictions, especially on one’s freedom or choices.
- Explanation: When people feel their choices are limited, they become motivated to restore freedom by resisting.
- Example: A teenager rebelling against curfew rules because they feel it restricts their independence.
- Coined by: Jack Brehm in 1966, in his work on freedom and persuasion.
Recency Effect
- Meaning: The tendency to remember the last items in a list better than those in the middle.
- Explanation: The most recent information often has more immediate relevance and is easier to recall.
- Example: Recalling the last few items of a list you just read out loud.
- Coined by: Hermann Ebbinghaus in his studies on memory in the late 19th century.
Reciprocal Determinism
- Explanation: The idea that behaviour, environment, and personal factors influence one another in a continuous cycle.
- Example: A shy person avoids social events, leading to fewer social skills, which reinforces their shyness.
- Coined by: Albert Bandura, in his social cognitive theory.
. Risk Compensation
- Meaning: The tendency to take greater risks when one feels more protected.
- Explanation: Feeling safe or protected can lead to riskier behaviour, offsetting the intended safety benefits.
- Example: Driving more recklessly in a car with advanced safety features.
- Coined by: John Adams in 1970.
Scarcity Principle
- Meaning: The tendency to value something more when it is perceived as limited or rare.
- Explanation: Scarcity creates a sense of urgency and increases desirability.
- Example: Limited-edition products often attract more buyers due to their perceived rarity.
- Coined by: Robert Cialdini, as part of persuasion psychology in the 1980s.
Self-Actualization
- Explanation: Achieving one’s fullest potential and personal growth, the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
- Example: An artist dedicates time to perfecting their craft, feeling fulfilled in their work.
- Coined by: Abraham Maslow, in his hierarchy of needs theory.
Self-Efficacy
- Explanation: Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific tasks or situations.
- Example: A confident student believes they can perform well in exams, often leading to improved performance.
- Coined by: Albert Bandura, in his studies on social cognitive theory.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
- Meaning: Expectations about a person or situation lead to behaviours that confirm those expectations.
- Explanation: This effect occurs when beliefs shape actions that make those beliefs come true.
- Example: Believing someone is untrustworthy may lead one to treat them with suspicion, causing the person to act defensively.
- Coined by: Robert K. Merton in 1948.
Social Comparison Theory
- Explanation: People evaluate their abilities by comparing themselves to others.
- Example: A student assesses their exam performance by comparing their score to their classmates.
- Coined by: Leon Festinger, in his research on social psychology.
Social Facilitation
- Meaning: The tendency for people to perform simple tasks better in the presence of others.
- Explanation: This effect is due to increased arousal when observed, improving performance on easy tasks.
- Example: A runner may perform faster in a race with an audience than when running alone.
- Coined by: Norman Triplett in 1898, through early research in social psychology.
Social Identity Theory
- Explanation: Suggests that a person’s self-concept is based on group membership and the value they place on it.
- Example: Feeling proud of one’s nationality or sports team membership boosts self-esteem.
- Coined by: Henri Tajfel, who studied intergroup relations and self-perception.
Social Loafing
- Explanation: When people exert less effort in a group because they assume others will take on more responsibility.
- Example: In a group project, some members may contribute less, assuming others will handle the work.
- Coined by: Max Ringelmann, who first studied this in workers and group productivity.
Social Proof
- Meaning: The tendency to follow the actions of others, assuming they are making the right choice.
- Explanation: This behaviour helps in uncertain situations, relying on the behaviour of others for guidance.
- Example: Choosing a restaurant based on positive reviews or seeing it filled with customers.
- Coined by: Robert Cialdini, as part of his six principles of persuasion.
Spotlight Effect
- Meaning: Overestimating how much one’s actions or appearance are noticed by others.
- Explanation: People often feel they are being observed more than they actually are.
- Example: Feeling embarrassed about a minor stain on clothes, assuming everyone else will notice.
- Coined by: Thomas Gilovich and Kenneth Savitsky in the 1990s.
Status Quo Bias
- Meaning: The preference to keep things as they are, resisting change.
- Explanation: People tend to favor current conditions and fear losses more than they value gains from change.
- Example: Avoiding new policies in a company even if they could bring improvement.
- Coined by: William Samuelson and Richard Zeckhauser in 1988.
Stereotype Threat
- Meaning: The fear of confirming a negative stereotype about one’s group, leading to anxiety and reduced performance.
- Explanation: Awareness of stereotypes creates stress, potentially harming performance in relevant tasks.
- Example: Women underperforming in math tests due to anxiety about gender stereotypes.
- Coined by: Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson in 1995.
. Sunk Cost Fallacy
- Meaning: The tendency to continue an endeavour once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made, even if it’s no longer beneficial.
- Explanation: This fallacy causes people to keep investing in a losing situation due to the resources already spent.
- Example: Continuing to watch a boring movie at a theater just because you paid for the ticket.
- Coined by: Richard Thaler popularized the concept through behavioural economics in the 1980s.
Survivorship Bias
- Meaning: Focusing on successful examples while overlooking failures, leading to skewed understanding.
- Explanation: This bias gives the illusion that success is more common than it is.
- Example: Believing entrepreneurship is easy because you only hear about successful startups, not the many that fail.
- Coined by: The concept was popularized by Abraham Wald in WWII through his study of surviving bomber planes.
Theory of Mind
- Explanation: The understanding that others have different beliefs, desires, and perspectives.
- Example: A child realizes their friend might want to play with a different toy, understanding the friend’s separate viewpoint.
- Coined by: David Premack and Guy Woodruff, who first explored this concept in the context of animal and human cognition.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
- Explanation: Performance improves with arousal up to a point, but excessive stress can hinder it.
- Example: Moderate anxiety before a presentation helps focus, but too much anxiety impairs performance.
- Coined by: Robert M. Yerkes and John D. Dodson, in their research on motivation.
Zeigarnik Effect
- Meaning: The tendency to remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones.
- Explanation: This effect suggests that incomplete tasks create a cognitive tension, leading to better recall.
- Example: Remembering an unfinished project at work more vividly than tasks already completed.
- Coined by: Bluma Zeigarnik in 1927.
Zone of Proximal Development
- Explanation: The range of skills a learner can achieve with guidance but not yet independently.
- Example: A child can complete a puzzle with help but struggles alone.
- Coined by: Lev Vygotsky, in his studies on learning and development.
